Electronic Supplementary Material Appendix S1 1: Table of study characteristics and quality scores included in the systematic review.

Reference / QS / Study design / n, sex / Activity level / Movement / Stiffness / Normalisation / Factors
Arampatzis et al. [42] / 4 / Within subject repeated crossover / 13 / Experienced runners / Run / Kinematic / None / Velocity
Austin et al. [52] / 5 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 10 M / - / Unipedal hop / Dynamic / None / Hop frequency
Baltich et al. / 9 / Within/between subject repeated randomised crossover / 93 (46 F, 47 M) / Recreational runners / Overground run / Moment / Body mass / Age, sex, midsole stiffness
Bishop et al. [66] / 5 / Within subject repeated / 9 (3F, 6M) / Physically active / Hop (2.2 Hz) / Dynamic / None / Footwear (BF, shoe)
Chambdon et al. / 9 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 15 M / Runners / Run (3.3 m/s) / Dynamic, Moment / Body mass / Footwear (BF, midsole thickness)
Choukou et al. [73] / 7 / Within subject repeated, time series / 8 M / Sprinters (regional) / Sprint / Time / None / Fatigue (4 x 100 m sprint)
Degache et al. [74] / 5 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 8 M / Long distance trail runners / Treadmill run (2.8, 3.3, 3.9 m/s) / Time Force / None / Fatigue (5 hr hilly run)
Degache et al. / 8 / Within subject repeated, time series / 16 M / Experienced trail runners / Run (3.3 m/s) / Time / None / Fatigue (Mountain Ultra Marathong)
Demirbüken et al. [57] / 6 / Between subject repeated / 22 (11F, 11M) / - / Bipedal hop (2.2 Hz) / Dynamic / None / Sex
Diss et al. / 8 / Betweent subject / 24 M / Endurance runners / Run (3.8-4.1 m/s) / Dynamic, moment / Body mass, leg length / Age
Divert et al. [64] / 8 / Within subject repeated balanced crossover / 12 M / Long distance runners / Treadmill run (3.6 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Footwear
Dutto & Smith [32] / 7 / Within subject repeated time series / 15 (4F, 11M) / Long distance runners / Treadmill run (80% VO2peak - x̄=4.03 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue (to exhaustion), Fzmax, stride rate
Reference / QS / Study design / n, sex / Activity level / Movement / Stiffness / Normalisation / Factors
Farley & Gonzalez [53] / 4 / Within subject repeated crossover / 4 M / Experienced treadmill runners / Treadmill run (2.5 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Stride rate (preferred x̄=1.33 Hz)
Farley et al. [37] / 4 / Within subject repeated crossover / 7 (4F, 3M) / - / Bipedal hop (2.2 Hz) / Dynamic, Moment / None / Surface stiffness
Ferris & Farley [38] / 4 / Within subject repeated crossover / 5 (3F, 2M) / - / Bipedal hop (2.0 Hz) / Dynamic / None / Surface stiffness
Ferris et al. [35] / 4 / Within subject repeated crossover / 5 / - / Run (5.0 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Surface stiffness
Ferris et al. [34] / 4 / Within subject repeated crossover / 6 F / - / Run (3.0 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Surface stiffness
Fourchet et al. / 8 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 11 M / Adolescent runners / TM run (95% VO2max) / Time / None / Fatigue (to exhaustion)
Giovanelli et al. / 9 / Within subject time series / 18 M / Runners / Run (3.6-3.7 m/s) / Time / None / Fatigue (uphill marathon)
Girard et al. [33] / 6 / Within subject repeated time series / 16 M / Recreational team or racket sports athletes / Sprint (max effort) / Dynamic (last 5 m) / None / Fatigue (12 x 40 m sprints), Performance variables, Fzmax
Girard et al. [30] / 7 / Within subject repeated time series / 12 M / Triathletes (national or regional) / Run (preferred) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue (5 km time trial), Fymax, Fymin, Fzmax, Performance variables
Granata et al. [59] / 6 / Between subject age matched / 30 (15F, 15M) / - / Bipedal hop (preferred – x̄=2.3(F)- 2.4(M) Hz) / Dynamic / None / Sex
Hayes et al. / 6 / Within subject pre/post / 6 M / Sub-eite middle distance runners / TM run (VO2max) / Time / None / Fatigue
Hobara et al. [47] / 6 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 7 M / - / Bipedal hop (preferred – x̄=2.1 Hz) / Time / None / Contact time, muscle activity
Hobara et al. [43] / 6 / Within subject repeated time series / 8 M / Trained sprinters / Sprint (max effort) / Time / None / Fatigue (400 m sprint), Performance variables
Reference / QS / Study design / n, sex / Activity level / Movement / Stiffness / Normalisation / Factors
Hobara et al. [50] / 6 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 10 M / - / Bipedal hop / Dynamic, Moment / None / Hopping frequency
Hobara et al. [56] / 8 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 14 M / Track and field athletes / Bipedal hop / Dynamic, Moment / Body mass / Hopping frequency
Hobara et al. [58] / 8 / Between subject repeated / 20 (10F, 10M) / Sedentary, mildly active / Bipedal hop (2.0, 2.5 Hz) / Dynamic / Body mass / Sex, Passive stiffness
Hobara et al. / 6 / Between subject repeated measure / 22 (12 F, 10 F) / Sedentary, / Bipedal hop (2.2 Hz) / Dynamic / Body mass / Age
Hoffrén et al. [51] / 5 / Between subject repeated / 33 [9 young (x̄=25.4 y), 24 elderly (x̄=71.7 y)] / Physically active / Bipedal hop (submaximal) / Moment / None / Age, Muscle activity
Hunter & Smith [75] / 8 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 16 (5F, 11M) / Recreational runners / Run (78% VO2max – 3.0 – 4.6 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue, stride rate
Kerdok et al. [36] / 5 / Within subject repeated mirrored crossover / 8 M / - / Run (3.7 m/s) / Kinematic + Force / None / Surface stiffness
Kuitunen et al. [45] / 6 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 10 M / Sprinters / Sprint / Dynamic, Moment / None / Velocity, tc
Kuitunen et al. [69] / 6 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 8 M / Physically active / Bipedal hop / Dynamic + COM, Moment / None / Intensity/BW load, Muscle activity
Lazzer et al. / 8 / Within subject time series / 11 M / Endurance runners / TM run (2.7 m/s) / Time / None / Fatigue (Multi stage run)
Lazzer et al. (15) / 8 / Within subject pre/post / 11 M / Endurance runners / Run (2.7-2.9 m/s) / Time / None / Fatigue
Le Meur et al. [88] / 7 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 10 M / Well-trained triathletes / Run (LT – x̄=4.4 m/s) / Time / None / Transition (5 min control run, 30 min cycle 80% VO2max, run exhaustion
Le Meur et al. [82] / 7 / Within subject repeated time series / 73 (36F, 43 M) / Elite triathletes / Run (race) / Time / None / Fatigue (10 km run)
Reference / QS / Study design / n, sex / Activity level / Movement / Stiffness / Normalisation / Factors
Lipfert et al. [122] / 4 / Within subject repeated crossover / 7 (1F, 6M) / - / Treadmill run / Dynamic / None / Velocity
Logan et al. [68] / 7 / Between and within subject repeated randomised crossover / 20 (10F, 10M) / National distance track or cross country runners / Run / Optimised / Body mass / Footwear (shoes, flats, spikes)
Lussiana et al. / 8 / Within subject repeated measures / 13 M / Runners / TM run (65% VO2max) / Time / None / Footwear
Millet et al. [76] / 7 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 19 (4F, 15M) / Orienteers / Run (70% VO2max – x̄= 3.7-4.1 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue
Morin et al. [44] / 6 / Within subject repeated time series / 8 M / Physical education students / Sprint / Time / None / Fatigue (4 x 100 m sprints), Performance variables
Morin et al. [48] / 7 / Within subject repeated randomised crossover / 10 M / Physically active / Run (3.3 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Stride rate (preferred x̄=2.8 Hz), Contact time (preferred x̄=0.24 s)
Morin et al. [78] / 7 / Within subject repeated time series / 10 M / Experienced ultramarathon runners / Treadmill run (2.8 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue (24 hrs Ultra treadmill run)
Morin et al. [77] / 7 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 18 M / Experienced ultramarathon runners / Run (3.3 m/s) / Time / None / Fatigue (166 km Mountain Ultra)
Morin et al. [79] / 7 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 11 M / Physical education students / Run (2.8, 5.6 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue (run sprint blocks, cycling sprint blocks)
Moritz and Farley [39] / 5 / Within subject repeated crossover / 10 F / - / Bipedal hop (2.2 Hz) / Dynamic / None / Surface stiffness (unexpected change)
Oliver and Smith [61] / 7 / Between subject repeated / 21 M (10 men, 11 boys) / Physically active / Bipedal hop (1.5, preferred – x̄=2.02-1.85 Hz) / Time / Body mass, leg length / Age, Muscle activity
Padua et al. [102] / 7 / Between subject / 21 (11F, 11M) / Physically active / Bipedal hopping (preferred– x̄=2.3 Hz) / Dynamic / Body mass / Sex
Reference / QS / Study design / n, sex / Activity level / Movement / Stiffness / Normalisation / Factors
Padua et al. [60] / 8 / Between and within subject repeated pre/post / 21 (10F, 11M) / Physically active / Bipedal hop (preferred Hz) / Dynamic / Body mass / Muscle fatigue (1/3 BW BB squat)
Rabita et al. [31] / 5 / Within subject repeated time series / 9 (3F, 6M) / Elite triathletes / Run (95% VO2max – x̄=5.1 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue (exhaustive run), Fymax, Fymin, Performance variables
Rabita et al. [83] / 6 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 12 M / Trained runners / Run (VO2max – x̄=5.1 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue (maximum effort endurance run)
Roschel et al. / 8 / Within subject repeated measure pre/post training intervention / 8 M / Recreational runners / TM run (3.3 m/s) / Dynamic / Body mass / Strength
Slawinski et al. [87] / 5 / Within subject repeated pre/post / 9 (2F, 7M) / 10,000 m runners / Run (3.6 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Fatigue (2000 m time trial), CR
Viale et al. [123] / 7 / Between subject repeated / 32 M [19 opened foot, 13 closed foot] / Distance runners / Run (3.4-4.2 m/s) / Dynamic / None / Rear-to-forefoot angle
Williams III et al. [41] / 8 / Between subject / 40 [20 HA (10F, 10M), 20 LA (12F, 8M)] / Runner / Run (3.4 m/s) / Dynamic, Inertial / Body mass / Arch height, Muscle activity

BB = barbell; BF = barefoot; BW = bodyweight; CR = cost of running; F = female; Fymin = minimum horizontal force; Fymax = maximum horizontal force; Fzmax = maximum vertical force; HA = high arch; Hz = hertz; LA = low arch; LT = lactate threshold; M = male; n = sample size; QS = quality score; tc = contact time; VO2peak = peak volume of oxygen; VO2max = maximum volume of oxygen;