Draft Emerging Models
Emerging model systems in plant biology:
Poplar (Populus) as a model forest tree
H.D. Bradshaw, Jr., University of Washington
Reinhart Ceulemans, University of Antwerp
John Davis, University of Florida
Reinhard Stettler, University of Washington
ABSTRACT
Forest trees have tremendous economic and ecological value, as well as unique biological properties of basic scientific interest. The inherent difficulties of experimenting on very large long-lived organisms motivates the development of model system for forest trees. Populus (poplars, cottonwoods, aspens) has several advantages as a model system, including rapid growth, prolific sexual reproduction, ease of cloning, small genome, facile transgenesis, and tight coupling between physiological traits and biomass productivity. A combination of genetics and physiology is being used to understand the detailed mechanisms of forest tree growth and development.
Keywords: forest genetics, tree physiology, genomics
WHY IS A MODEL SYSTEM NEEDED FOR FOREST TREES?
The economic and ecological importance of forest trees provide the impetus for developing model systems to study tree biology. Wood is one of the most valuable commodities in the industrialized world, exceeding the weight of all other structural materials combined. More than half of the world’s annual wood harvest is used as fuel, primarily in less-developed countries. In nature, forest trees are the principal form of terrestrial biomass. Wild forests provide irreplaceable environmental benefits such as carbon sequestration, watershed protection, and habitat for endangered wildlife. Trees themselves are intrinsically interesting, since they represent the pinnacle of evolutionary refinement in the competition among plants for access to sunlight, thereby dominating many of the Earth’s most awe-inspiring landscapes.
While many aspects of tree biology are common to all plants, and hence can be studied in very tractable model species such as Arabidopsis, some unique facets of tree anatomy and physiology must be investigated in trees themselves. A large number of these unique characters are related to their perennial growth habit. Extensive formation of secondary xylem (wood) is perhaps the most obvious, but other characters include leaf and flower phenology, seasonal reallocation of nutrients, cold hardiness, iterative development of a complex crown form, and juvenile-mature phase change. The great lifespan and large size of forest trees pose special challenges to biologists, but are fundamental to understanding the role of trees in natural and managed ecosystems.
The experimental power of genetics, including molecular biology and genomics, has now permeated every discipline in biology. Clearly, an ideal model forest tree must have the potential to be manipulated using standard genetic approaches, such as mutagenesis and the creation of transgenic plants. In spite of the fact that other forest trees have been put forward as model systems, including Salix (willow), Eucalyptus, and Pinus (pine), for the reasons discussed below Populus has led the way in making use of genetic methods to study tree structure and function.
The knowledge gained from model forest tree systems will be put to use in the protection of forest ecosystems and in practical tree breeding. By defining, quantifying, and understanding tree physiological processes and morphological structures we hope to mathematically model, predict, and get a conceptual grasp of tree growth and development. In contrast to agronomic crops, relatively few physiologically based growth models have been developed for trees, largely due to a lack of fundamental physiological information and the difficulty of working with complex perennial plants (Ford 1985; Amaro and Tomé 1999). Just as in forest genetics, poplars have been adopted by tree physiologists as a model system.
The interplay between poplar genetics and physiology, at scales as large as the landscape and as small as a molecule, is the subject we now explore in greater depth. Ultimately, we wish to trace tree physiology and anatomy to the level of individual genes, understanding and manipulating their interactions with each other and the environment.
POPULUS TAXONOMY, DISTRIBUTION, AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
The genus Populus L. is a member of the Salicaceae which, together with the Flacourtiaceae and 29 other families, have been placed under the Malpighiales, in the recent cladistic analysis of the Angiosperms (The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 1998). A genus of deciduous trees (rarely semi-evergreen), it comprises aspens, poplars and cottonwoods, having a wide natural distribution in the Northern Hemisphere and a small representation in tropical Africa. Various classifications have been suggested, the most recent recognizing 29 species that are grouped under six separate sections (Eckenwalder 1996). Many of these species have extensive distribution ranges, some spanning entire continents (e.g., P. tremuloides, P. tremula), and only few being geographically confined (e.g., P. ilicifolia, P. monticola). For simplicity we will use the term poplar throughout this chapter, unless we draw attention to a specific sub-group.
Poplars are dioecious, wind-pollinated, and produce large amounts of pollen and small, cotton-tufted seed that is dispersed by wind and water in early summer. Capable of rapidly invading disturbed sites, many species occupy habitats in the dynamic environment of riverine floodplains where they form a key component of riparian forests (Braatne et al. 1996). Others, such as the aspens, commonly colonize upland areas after intense, stand-replacing fires (Burns and Honkala 1990). All poplars also have the capacity to reproduce asexually, mostly by sprouting from the root collar of killed trees, or from abscised or broken branches that become embedded in the soil. Aspen and white poplars propagate through sucker shoots that arise from horizontal roots, often after a fire, typically leading to clonal stands that may cover several hectares. Recurrent fires can maintain genets of such clones for hundreds of years.
Rapid growth is the hallmark of poplars. It derives from a growth system that starts with the elongation of a preformed shoot from its bud and then continues to initiate and expand shoot segments and leaves throughout the growing season. The wood is diffuse-porous, light in weight and yet capable of building trees of 40 m height in less than 20 years. Several of these features have made poplars attractive to humans since ancient times. Today, poplar is cultivated worldwide in plantations for pulp and paper, veneer, excelsior (packing material), engineered wood products (e.g., oriented strandboard), lumber, and energy. Grown at a commercial scale under intensive culture for 6-8 year rotations, production rates with hybrid poplar can be as high as 17-30 Mg/ha/yr of dry woody biomass (Zsuffa et al. 1996), comparable to the biomass produced by row crops such as corn. Historically, poplar has been widely used in windbreaks and for erosion control. Most recently, poplars have proven to be effective in the phytoremediation of environmental toxins (Flathman and Lanza 1998) and as bioindicators for ozone pollution in the environment (Jepsen 1994).
STRENGTHS OF POPULUS AS A MODEL SYSTEM
Well established collaboration among poplar biologists. Extensive collaboration between poplar geneticists, physiologists, and pathologists has set a solid scientific foundation for joint efforts in the future. Shared genetic materials, genetically informative two- and three-generation pedigrees, DNA-based genetic markers, common field measurement protocols, clonal plantation trials supported by industry/government/academic partnerships, and funding from multi-agency grants have established a poplar research network of proven productivity. Working groups under the aegis of the International Poplar Commission (IPC) of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, and of the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO), as well as several university/industrial research cooperatives, help to coordinate the work and the exchange of information. Two books synthesizing a large body of data on poplar biology have been published recently, reviewing and solidifying the status of poplar as a model forest tree (Klopfenstein et al. 1997; Stettler et al. 1996).
Abundant genetic variation in natural populations. Adaptations to the diverse conditions inherent in large distribution ranges, as well as prominent genetic polymorphisms in local populations, offer poplar researchers a rich source of variation in tree morphology, anatomy, physiology, phenology, and response to biotic and abiotic stress. Much of this variation is under moderate to strong genetic control (Farmer 1996). Extensive natural populations remain for many species, especially in North America.
Ease of sexual propagation and interspecific hybridization. Poplars are bred in the greenhouse on detached female branches with pollen that can be stored for several years. Each pollination can yield hundreds of seeds within 4 to 8 weeks. Seeds germinate within 24 hours and give rise to 1-2 m tall seedlings by the end of the same year. Few if any trees can match such efficiency. Poplar species within the same section, and many of the species from different sections, can be hybridized. Because all members of the genus are diploid (2n = 38), hybrids are fertile and can generate F2 and backcross progenies that segregate for a wide range of traits. F1 hybrids often show heterosis in growth and associated characteristics which make them attractive for commercial use (Zsuffa et al. 1996).
Physiological responses to environmental variables are rapid and pronounced. As a consequence of the rapid juvenile growth of poplars, it is possible to measure short-term responses to biotic (e.g., disease) and abiotic (e.g., drought, elevated CO2, ozone) factors. Opportunities are being explored for using this rapid growth as a means of carbon sequestration, particularly in Europe. The short turnaround time for physiological studies makes it possible to use molecular genetic approaches requiring very large sample sizes (hundreds or thousands of physiological measurements). High-throughput poplar physiology has led to the genetic mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling morphological (Bradshaw and Stettler 1995), phenological (Frewen et al. 2000), and pathological (Cervera et al. 1996; Newcombe and Bradshaw 1996; Newcombe et al. 1996; Villar et al. 1996) traits. Candidate genes for some of these QTLs have been identified (Frewen et al. 2000).
Close coupling of physiological traits and biomass productivity. Critical components of productivity in Populus have been examined from a physiological perspective (Ceulemans 1990). Both structural and functional components were identified at different organizational levels: the individual leaf, the branch, and the whole tree. Among the process-related components, stomatal morphology and behavior (Tschaplinski et al. 1994), leaf morphology and leaf growth physiology (Ridge et al. 1986), leaf and whole tree photosynthesis (Isebrands et al. 1988), and root development (Friend et al. 1991) showed the most significant genetic variation. Key anatomical characters include those that determine whole tree leaf area and its duration, such as leaf demography (Chen et al. 1994; Hinckley et al. 1989), leaf size and distribution (Dunlap et al. 1992), branch size and distribution (Ceulemans et al. 1990), and leaf and branch orientation (Isebrands and Michael 1986). A favorable combination of several leaf physiological as well as whole tree and canopy structural traits explains the superior growth of selected hybrid poplar clones. QTLs for many of these traits have been mapped genetically (Bradshaw and Stettler 1995; Wu et al. 1997), but the genes controlling these traits remain to be identified and characterized.
Well-characterized molecular physiology. The large physical size of poplars, coupled with the well-understood movement of carbon assimilates (Vogelmann et al. 1982) and co-transported systemic wound signals between source and sink leaves (Davis et al. 1991; Clarke et al. 1998; Constabel and Ryan 1998) is an advantage over small plant models such as Arabidopsis in studies involving systemic signal movement. Induced resistance to insect herbivory is acquired systemically, and is phenocopied in part by mechanical injury (Havill and Raffa 1999). This positions poplar as an excellent model for synthesizing ecological and molecular perspectives of induced resistance to insect herbivory.
Dramatic patterns of nitrogen allocation, utilization, and storage. Riparian ecosystems receive nutrient inputs episodically, which may help explain why poplars tissues store high levels of nitrogen in the form of vegetative storage proteins for subsequent utilization (Coleman et al. 1994; Lawrence et al. 1997). We have observed healthy poplar leaves with nitrogen concentrations exceeding 8% of dry weight (J. Cooke, K. Brown, J. Davis, unpublished), vs. the 1-1.5% maximum levels found even in fertilized conifer needles. Nitrogen levels fluctuate dynamically among organs within the same tree (roots, stem, and leaves) in concordance with seasonal rhythms of active growth and dormancy. The stem anatomy of poplar trees is particularly suited to studying the role of phloem-transmissible substances such as glutamine in regulating nitrogen allocation, as phloem can be specifically perturbed by girdling while xylem transport remains intact (e.g., Sauter and Neumann 1994).
Physiological process models for poplar growth and development. Large databases of anatomical, physiological, and silvicultural traits are available for a modest number of Populus hybrids and clones. Several physiologically-based growth and productivity models have been developed from these data. The models include basic information on carbon uptake and allocation in poplar, as well as components and parameters of leaf display and crown structure. Most of the models simulate carbon uptake, carbon allocation, growth, and/or light interception in poplar and incorporate some specific parameters of leaf display, position in the tree, and branch structure (Chen et al. 1994; Host et al. 1996; Isebrands et al. 1996). Data on the physiological and structural growth determinants at the leaf, branch, and whole tree level indicate that differences in clonal productivity can be incorporated into the ideotype concept developed for poplar tree breeding under short rotation intensive culture (Dickmann 1985; Dickmann and Keathley 1996).
Cloning of individual tree genotypes. The ease with which most materials can be vegetatively propagated is one of poplar’s premier assets. Cloning captures genetic variation and allows it to be replicated in space and time in separate experiments. Cloning ‘freezes’ genetic variation in hybrids and permits the side-by-side growth of multiple generations of a pedigree. Cloning permits the growth of abnormal plants under field conditions that in the competitive environment of a seedling population would be impossible. Cloning also allows destructive sampling for physiological studies, the sharing of materials among laboratories, and the buildup of cumulative knowledge on selected genotypes.
Closely related to other angiosperm model plants. Unlike the pines and other gymnosperms, poplars are relatively recently diverged from other angiosperms, such as Arabidopsis, which serve as models for integrating genetics into the study of plant biology (Fig. 1).
Small genome size. The haploid genome size of Populus is 550 million base pairs (bp) (Bradshaw and Stettler 1993), only 4 times larger than the genome of the model plant Arabidopsis, and 40 times smaller than the genomes of conifers such as loblolly pine. The small poplar genome simplifies gene cloning, Southern blotting, and other standard molecular genetics techniques. The physical:genetic distance ratio for poplar is close to 200 kb/centiMorgan, almost identical to Arabidopsis, making Populus an attractive target for map-based (positional) cloning of genes.
Basic molecular genetics toolkit. Linkage maps of the poplar genome have been made with a variety of marker types, including allozymes, RFLPs, STS/CAPs, RAPDs, AFLPs, and microsatellites (Liu and Furnier 1993; Bradshaw et al. 1994; Cervera et al. 1996; Frewen et al. 2000). Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) genomic libraries containing 10 haploid poplar genome equivalents (50,000 clones) have been constructed for P. deltoides (W. Boerjan, pers. comm.) and for P. trichocarpa (J. Vrebalov, pers. comm.). These libraries have been arrayed into microtiter plates and replicated for sharing with other researchers. Expressed sequence tag (EST) databases of modest size are in the public domain (Sterky et al. 1998).
Facile transformation and regeneration to create transgenic poplars. The ease of creating transgenic Populus is unmatched by any other forest tree. Some poplars, such as the hybrid aspen (P. alba x tremula) clone 717-1B4, can be genetically transformed with Agrobacterium and regenerated efficiently into intact transgenic trees within 6-10 months (Jouanin et al. 1993). Transgenesis is the ‘gold standard’ for demonstration of gene function, and so is crucial for basic research into physiological processes.
Obviously, there are also potential commercial applications for transgenic poplars. The ease with which genes are cloned and transgenic trees are produced in Populus, set against the backdrop of a poplar EST database of wood-forming genes (Sterky et al. 1998), has created a fertile scientific field for understanding and manipulating wood composition in dramatic ways (Hu et al. 1999). Progress is likely to accelerate in this important research area as the tools of genomics, biochemistry, and cell biology are collectively brought to bear on manipulating wood quality and other important physiological or morphological traits.
WEAKNESSES OF POPULUS AS A MODEL SYSTEM
Modest commercial importance. Poplar is grown commercially on a wide geographic scale and many wild populations, especially aspen in the boreal forest, are harvested by industry. However, from a corporate viewpoint, poplars are much less important than pines and other softwoods, or eucalypts. It can be difficult to persuade companies to invest in (or lobby for) poplar research, either as a model tree, or as a component of fiber/energy plantations. For a variety of historical, political, and economic reasons, most of the forest products industry still relies on harvests from natural or extensively managed stands and has yet to turn to the intensive agricultural paradigm for wood production for which poplar is ideally suited.
Long generation interval. Many willows and some eucalypts can be induced to flower within a year or two from seed. Most poplars will not flower earlier than 4 years of age, and many will take twice that long. The long generation interval is an impediment to practical breeding and selection and the development of informative pedigrees. It limits the applicability of conventional experimental genetic techniques such as induced mutagenesis, since producing homozygotes from heterozygous mutants is impracticably slow.