Domestication of Animals Such As Cattle - As Well As the Domestication of Plants - Changed

Mesopotamia

Domestication of animals such as cattle - as well as the domestication of plants - changed people's lives and the course of human history dramatically. The most significant change was the shift from a nomadic life-style to settled villages. In order to care for crops and herds of animals, people needed to live in one place. This change from hunting and gathering to planting and herding occurred independently in many parts of the world. In northern Mesopotamia, the process occurred over the period 10,000-6000BC. Here, there was enough rainfall to grow crops, and the region was also home to wheat, barley, sheep, cattle, goats, and pigs, the wild plants and animals that eventually were domesticated.

By 5800 BC, people were living in the southern plains of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The land in this region was exceptionally fertile, but the rainfall was insufficient to grow crops. The rivers were undependable, drying up in the searing heat of the summer. Irrigation was the solution to these problems. Over time, ditches laced the fields near the rivers, making the land a maze of artificial waterways.

Cities

For the ancient Mesopotamians, their cities were the centers of life. When they looked back to the beginning of time, they did not see a Garden of Eden, but rather an ancient site called Eridu, which they believed was the first city ever to be created. Ancient Mesopotamia is where the world's first cities appeared around 4000 - 3500BC.

No one knows for sure why urbanization began in Mesopotamia. The development of cities could have occurred due to environmental conditions. Lack of rainfall might have been the inspiration for people to organize themselves in a common effort to build canals for the irrigation of farmland. Another reason may have been the need for protection on the open plain, which could have led people to gather together to create walled enclaves. Whatever the reasons, this was the first time in history that humankind channeled its energies towards addressing the needs of a community as a whole.

Government

The Laws of Hammurabi are the longest and best organized of the law collections that survive from ancient Mesopotamia. King Hammurabi, who ruled from 1792-1750 BC, had the laws inscribed on stone stelae which he placed in various temples throughout his realm. The stela from which this cast was made stands almost seven-and-a-half feet tall. At the top of the stela, King Hammurabi stands before the sun god Shamash, the Mesopotamian god of justice, who is seated on his throne. Shamash gives Hammurabi the rod and ring, symbols of kingship and divine justice, thus reinforcing the ancient Mesopotamian belief that laws came from the gods.

Below this scene is the law collection itself, mainly comprised of a compilation of legal verdicts describing specific offenses and the penalties to be enforced in particular situations. Preceding the law collection is a lengthy prologue, stressing the gods' appointment of Hammurabi as the ruler of his people. Hammurabi's role was to act as guardian and protector of the weak and powerless, and to pay care and attention to the specific needs of the patron deities of the many cities incorporated into his realm. Following the laws is an epilogue describing the king as the military leader who brings peace to his subjects. It explicitly states that these laws were inscribed on a stela and publicly displayed in order to testify to Hammurabi's righteous and just rule, to bring consolation to anyone seeking justice, and to serve as an example for future rulers.

Religion

The ancient Mesopotamians worshipped hundreds of gods, each with his/her own name and sphere of activity. Every city had its own patron god or goddess, and there were also deities connected with various professions - such as scribes and builders. But only a few gods - those who controlled major realms of the universe, such as the sky, the sun, and air - received attention as major deities. Anu was the father of the gods and the god of the sky; Enlil was the god of the air; Utu was the sun god and the lord of truth and justice; Nanna was the moon god; Inanna was the goddess of love and war; Ninhursag was the goddess of earth; and Enki was the god of fresh water as well as the lord of wisdom and magic. While they served and revered the great gods, most people felt little connection with these distant beings.

Ordinary people depended on a relationship with their own personal god - a kind of guardian angel - who protected individuals and interceded for them with the great deities.

Social Structure

The Mesopotamian social structure was highly stratified. There were the high class gentry, the middle class and the lowest class. The government officials, the king, the priests, landowners and the wealthy traders and merchants formed the upper strata of society.
The middle class consisted of fishermen, farmers, artisans, and potters and scribes or those who were involved in documenting records in the language prevalent during the period.
The lowest class comprised of slaves, people without land and children as well as prisoners who were captured after the prolonged wars that took place to wrest control of city states. Slaves were regarded as bounty from wars and they were brought in and made to work for wealthy merchants and priests.
The Mesopotamia social pyramid, however, had at its top, the priestly class. They were the ones who were the safe keepers of the gods housed in temples. Priests wielded a lot of clout and they were supposed to be the know all and be all of religion and interpreted god's commands.

Writing

Writing emerged in many different cultures and in numerous locations throughout the ancient world. It was not the creation of any one people. However, the Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia are credited with inventing the earliest form of writing, which appeared ca.3500BC. The clay tablets shown here date from around 3200BC. They were unearthed by Oriental Institute archaeologists at the site of Tell Asmar in Iraq.

The writings on these tablets are simple pictures, or pictograms, which represent an object or an idea. Because clay is a difficult material on which to draw lines and curves, the Mesopotamians eventually reduced pictograms into a series of wedge-shaped signs that they pressed into clay with a reed stylus. This wedge-shaped writing is called cuneiform.

The invention of writing was the dawn of the information revolution. This great technological advance allowed news and ideas to be carried to distant places without having to rely on a messenger's memory. Like all inventions, writing emerged because there was a need for it. In Mesopotamia, it was developed as a record-keeping vehicle for commercial transactions or administrative procedures. There are also texts that served as "copy books" for the education of future scribes. Eventually, cuneiform script was used to produce some of the greatest literary works in recorded history.

Art

Temples were originally built on platforms. During the third millennium B.C., these were made higher and bigger. Eventually it was decided to build even higher temples on platforms which were stepped. These stepped towers we call ziggurats. By 2000 B.C. mud-brick ziggurats were being constructed in many Sumerian cities. Later, ziggurats were constructed in Babylonian and Assyrian cities. No one knows for certain why ziggurats were built or how they were used. They are part of temple complexes, so they were probably connected with religion.

Extras

The seeder plow, invented by the Mesopotamians, was a major technological achievement. It revolutionized agriculture by carrying out the tasks of seeding and plowing simultaneously. Seed was dropped down the middle funnel into the furrow that the plow created. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the god Enlil created the seeder plow and that the image of the plow could also be seen in the stars. They discovered that by observing the movements of celestial bodies they could measure time, which was key for planting crops and for holding religious festivals. Their astronomical observations still aid today's scientists.

The ancient Mesopotamians were a highly inventive people who created many innovations. They not only invented the seeder plow, but also developed writing, irrigation and sanitation techniques, the "Pythagorean theorem," the concept of zero, glass, and the arch, column, and dome. They revolutionized transportation around 3500BC by inventing the wheel and were among the first to harness the wind as an energy source by using the sail.

Egypt

Cities

Ancient Egypt never developed any major cities. The reason was that the Nile valley constituted a continuous inhabitable area, in which few places had any advantages over others, whether in terms of communication or non-agricultural products. The cities that did emerge were wither the result of the need for effective administration, or the clustering of facilities around an important religious center.The main urban places in Ancient Egypt throughout the major moments of its history, were Memphis and Thebes. Memphis' rise to importance came from its being the meeting point between the Nile valley and the Nile delta, with its many smaller rivers. Hence it was an effective market place which could work well in the control of taxation and internal security. Memphis evolved as the first capital of Egypt, to which Saqqara and Giza served as necropolises. Thebes' rise to importance was slower than that of Memphis, and it appears that beyond the need to form an administrative and religious centre for southern Egypt, there were no distinct advantage to Thebes' region in comparison with other places. The region around Thebes, was, however, rich in agriculture and well-populated.More short-lived as an important city was Akhetaten (now known as Tell el-Amarna), the planned city of Akhenaten.

Government

Ancient Egyptian Government was dominated by a single man, the Pharaoh. The people believed that the king was more than a man, however, but that he was a god. This gave him absolute control over the affairs of the Empire and its people. Ancient Egypt was also a theocracy, controlled by the clergy. The Pharaoh¹s advisors and ministers were almost always priests, who were considered the only ones worthy and able to carry out the god-king¹s commands. As in most religious ancient societies, priests had special status above the rest of the citizens, forming a kind of nobility.The governmental officials included the vizier, or the prime minister, the chief treasurer, the tax collector, the minister of public works, and the army commander. These officials were directly responsible to the Pharaoh. The land itself was divided up into provinces called nomes. Each nome had a governor, who was appointed by the Pharaoh, and responsible to the vizier. Taxes were paid in goods and labor. Citizens were drafted into the army and forced labor for periods of time to pay what was called a corvée, the labor tax. Slaves, mercenaries, and draftees were often used in the army. It is believed, however, that Egyptian slaves were not used to construct sacred monuments, such as the Pyramids. Egyptologists were led to this conclusion by recent finding of worker burial grounds near such monuments. The workers received proper Egyptian burials, whereas slaves did not. The majority of Egyptian people were peasants who worked the land along the fertile Nile flood basin. These people had no voice in their government, and accepted this fact because it was backed by their religion. This mingling of religion and government is probably what kept Egypt so powerful and centralized during its high points.

Religion

The ancient Egyptians believed in many different gods and goddesses. Having more than one god is known as polytheism. Each God with their own role to play in maintaining peace and harmony across the land.Some gods and goddesses took part in creation, some brought the flood every year, some offered protection, and some took care of people after they died. Others were either local gods who represented towns, or minor gods who represented plants or animals. The ancient Egyptians believed that it was important to recognize and worship these gods and goddesses so that life continued smoothly.

Social Structure

Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the top were the gods, such as RA, Osiris, and Isis. Egyptians believed that the gods controlled the universe. Therefore, it was important to keep them happy. They could make the Nile overflow, cause famine, or even bring death.The Egyptians also elevated some human beings to gods. Their leaders, called PHARAOHS, were believed to be gods in human form. They had absolute power over their subjects. After pharaohs died, huge stone PYRAMIDS were built as their tombs. Pharaohs were buried in chambers within the pyramids.

Because the people of Egypt believed that their pharaohs were gods, they entrusted their rulers with many responsibilities. Protection was at the top of the list. The pharaoh directed the army in case of a foreign threat or an internal conflict. All laws were enacted at the discretion of the pharaoh. Each farmer paid taxes in the form of grain, which were stored in the pharaoh's warehouses. This grain was used to feed the people in the event of a famine.

Writing

Egyptian language in writing was called hieroglyphics. Because of its importance to the culture, this written and painted language was also an art form for the Egyptians. Hieroglyphics was a system with 24 alphabetic characters. Vowels wouldn’t be written down. Instead they had phonograms and ideograms. Hieroglyphics were carved or painted. But for everyday purposes, they used a simple cursive form of hieroglyphics called hieratic. The picture writing, hieroglyphics was used for religious writings and for inscriptions on monuments. There were about 750 different hieroglyphs. It took as much as twelve years to learn to write in the Egyptians script. Many artists and scribes started learning at the age of four! They wrote on papyrus scrolls using colored inks and pens made from the softened ends of reeds.

Art

Egyptians had several kinds of art forms. Mummy cases, or sarcophaguses, were built for the bodies of kings or important people. They believed that the body went to an afterlife and the sarcophagus was to be a beautiful and valuable place for the body to rest. The body was wrapped in white bandages then it was put in its own case with a unique design. But the more significant people were given more than one case, which were piled inside each other. Another interesting art form was relief art. In relief art, the picture was carved into layers to give a raised look. In the Old and Middle Kingdom, reliefs were made in soft limestone. During the New Kingdom sandstone was used. Reliefs showed every kind of activity, from feasting to working, from learning to dancing. Statues were another common art form Egyptians liked making. Most were of gods, goddesses, pharaohs, and queens. The statues could be made small or large. Statues were not suppose to copy nature, but they were meant to be symbols of the people's beliefs. Statues always had to be youthful figures. The paintings and drawings of Egyptian people look flat and strange, because they were painted in a particular way. Important people were painted larger than others. Heads were shown from front view. Eyes and the top half of the body were shown from the front, but arms and legs were shown from the side, so that they were easier to see.

Indus Valley

Cities

One of the cities located in the Indus Valley is Harappa, and a neighboring city 350 miles away, Mohenjo-Daro. Excavations reveal large, orderly walls of massive brick buildings with high sophisticated sanitation and drainage systems. The culture itself was very drab and unattractive because the civilization did not focus on gold and large monuments. Harappa is believed to have gotten its start as a farming village around 3300 BC. Mohenjo-Daro is the twin city and both formed the hub of the civilization. Since their planning principles were followed without change at all other sites, these two cities laid the groundwork for the other cities that followed. Both cities were a mile square with defensive outer walls. The street layout shows an understanding of traffic with rounded corners to allow turning of carts easily, and dividing the city into 12 blocks. Except for the west-central blocks, the basic unit of city planning was the individual houses.
In Mohenjo-Daro, thirty-nine skeletons were found in the different streets and houses, and it is surmised that Aryans invaded and murdered many of the people. A toy that may have been used as a whistle was excavated in this city. The item is shaped like a bird and made of terra cotta. You blow into the hole to make a whistling sound. Cube-shaped dice were also discovered in the excavations along with a baby’s rattle, which had little holes in it. To make the sound of a rattle, small bits of clay were inside. Occasionally, the people did hide valuable ornaments in pots and bury them under the floors of a house. There have been found silver vessels and gold and silver ornaments that provided evidence of wealthy merchants or landowners. Excavations also provided stone carvings of seated male figures that may represent some of the ancestral leaders of communities. There is no evidence that either priests or kings ruled the cities. Sculptures unearthed show a fillet around the head, and an armband and a cloak decorated with trefoil patterns that originally were filled with red pigment.