Chapter 6, Section 1
How Congress Is Organized (pages 138–144)
Did You Know? The United States began its first census, or
population count, in 1790. The task lasted 18 months. Census
takers rode horseback around the country to count the widely
scattered population. Today, census takers do more than count
people. They gather information about age, education, employment,
and income. They also collect information on housing,
agriculture, transportation, and different industries. Government
officials use this information to study social and economic problems
and plan programs.
I. Terms of Congress (page 138)
A. The Framers of the U.S. Constitution intended the legislative branch to be the most
powerful branch.
B. Each term starts January 3 of odd-numbered years and lasts two years. Each term has
two sessions.
C. Congress holds special sessions in times of crisis. A joint session occurs when both
houses meet together, such as for the president’s State of the Union address.
Discussion Question
How are different terms of Congress identified? (Each “new” Congress is given a number
to identify its two-year term. For example, the first Congress met in 1789, and the 107th
Congress began meeting in 2001.)
II. A Bicameral Legislature (pages 139–140)
A. The Great Compromise established Congress as a two-part, or bicameral, body.
B. The House of Representatives has 435 voting members, allotted to the states by population.
After each census, or population count taken by the Census Bureau, Congress
adjusts the number of representatives given to each state.
C. States are divided into districts, with one representative elected from each district.
The states draw districts to include roughly the same number of constituents, or
people represented. Some abuse the process by drawing a gerrymander, or oddly
shaped district designed to increase the voting strength of a particular group.
D. House members focus on the concerns of their district.
E. The Senate has 100 members—two from each state. Senators represent their entire
states. They serve six-year terms. Elections are staggered to ensure some stability.
Discussion Question
Members of the House of Representatives focus on the concerns of their district,
rather than on the concerns of their state as a whole. Is this what the Framers of
the Constitution intended? Explain. (Yes. In allotting House seats by population, the
Framers designed Congress so that House members would be closer to the people than would
members of the Senate.)
Chapter 6, Section 1 (continued)
III. Congressional Leaders (pages 140–142)
A. In both houses, the political party to which more than half the members belong is
the majority party. The other party is the minority party. Party members choose
their leaders at the beginning of each term.
B. The Speaker of the House is the most powerful leader in the House of
Representatives. The Speaker always belongs to the majority party. The Speaker is in
charge of floor debates and influences most House business. If something happened
to the president and vice president, the Speaker would become president.
C. The leader of the Senate is technically the vice president, who rarely attends
and votes only in case of a tie. The person who actually acts as chairperson is the
president pro tempore. The majority party fills this mostly ceremonial position.
D. Powerful floor leaders try to make sure the laws Congress passes are in the best
interest of their own party. They speak for their parties on the issues and try to sway
votes. Party “whips” help by keeping track of where their party members stand on
issues and rounding them up for key votes.
Discussion Question
How does the Speaker of the House exercise influence? (Speakers today often influence
through persuasion. They talk with many members of Congress, listen to requests for
favors, and in return expect the representatives to support important issues.)
IV. Committees: Little Legislatures (pages 142–144)
A. The detailed work of lawmaking is done in committees. Each house has permanent
standing committees that continue their work from session to session. Most are
divided into smaller subcommittees that deal with specialized issues.
B. Both houses also have select committees that are created to do a special job for
a limited period. They disband after completing their task.
C. Joint committees include members of both houses. Temporary conference
committees help the House and Senate agree on the details of a proposed law.
D. Members of Congress try to get assigned to important committees that affect the
people who elected them. Party leaders make committee assignments based on
members’ preferences, expertise, party loyalty, and seniority, or years of service.
E. Members with the most seniority usually get the preferred committee spots. The
most senior members from the majority party traditionally become chairpersons.
Chairpersons of standing committees are the most powerful members of Congress.
Discussion Question
What are the main arguments for and against the use of the seniority system in
choosing committee members? (Some people think the seniority system prevents fights
over committee jobs and ensures that chairpersons will have experience. Others complain
that talented people may be overlooked in favor of those who simply have been around for
a while.)
Chapter 6, Section 2
The Powers of Congress (pages 146–150)
Did You Know? After World War I, President Woodrow
Wilson envisioned an organization of nations dedicated to maintaining
peace in the world. He designed a plan for the League of
Nations. Other countries agreed with the plan, and the League
was formed. President Wilson pushed hard for Senate approval,
but the Senate would not agree to the terms. The Senate voted
to reject the Treaty of Versailles, blocking the United States from
joining the League of Nations.
I. Legislative Powers (pages 146–147)
A. Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution lists Congress’s specific or expressed powers.
Clause 18 gives Congress implied powers (not stated explicitly) to do whatever is
“necessary and proper” to carry out the expressed powers. Clause 18 is often called
the elastic clause because it allows Congress to stretch its powers to meet new
needs.
B. Congress has the power to collect taxes to pay for government and its services. All
tax bills must start in the House of Representatives and be approved by the Senate.
C. Congress spends money by means of a two-step process. Authorization bills create
projects and set an amount to be spent on them. Appropriations bills actually provide
the money for each program. Congress must approve all government spending.
D. Article I, Section 8, Clause 3, the “commerce clause,” gives Congress the power to
regulate foreign and interstate commerce. Laws dealing with air traffic, television,
and air pollution are all based on this clause.
E. Only Congress can declare war. Congress has the power to create, maintain, and oversee
an army and navy. The Senate must approve all treaties with other countries.
Discussion Question
Why did the Founders give Congress broad powers? (The Founders knew that they
could not foresee every situation Congress might face. They included the “necessary and
proper” clause to allow Congress to stretch its powers to meet new needs.)
II. Nonlegislative Powers (pages 148–149)
A. Congress has powers not related to making laws. It can propose constitutional amendments.
It counts electoral votes in presidential elections. If no one receives a majority,
the House picks the president and the Senate picks the vice president. If a president
dies, resigns, or is too ill to serve, Congress settles the matter.
B. Congress has the power to check other branches. The Senate can approve or reject
the president’s nominations for jobs such as Supreme Court justice, federal judge,
and ambassador.
C. The House may impeach, or accuse officials of misconduct. If the majority of House
members vote to impeach, the matter goes to the Senate. A two-thirds vote in the
Senate is required to remove the person from office.
Chapter 6, Section 2 (continued)
D. Congress has taken on the role of overseeing government activities. Standing committees
review how well the executive branch has put laws into practice. Congress
conducts special investigations that may lead to criminal charges or new laws to
deal with the problem.
Discussion Question
If the House votes to impeach an official, is that person removed from office? (Not
necessarily. After the House votes to impeach, the Senate acts as the jury. A two-thirds vote in
the Senate is required to convict and remove the person from office.)
III. Limits on Power (page 150)
A. The Constitution imposes limits on Congress. It may not pass laws that violate the
Bill of Rights. Article I says that Congress may not favor one state over another, tax
interstate commerce, or tax exports.
B. Congress cannot suspend the writ of habeas corpus. This is a court order that
requires police to explain why they are holding a suspect.
C. Congress may not pass bills of attainder, or laws that punish a person without a
jury trial. Congress may not pass ex post facto laws that make an act a crime after
the act has been committed. Congress may not interfere with powers reserved for
the states.
D. Other branches can check the power of Congress. The Supreme Court may declare
laws unconstitutional. The president can veto bills.
Discussion Question
Does a president’s veto kill a bill, or can the bill become law anyway? (The bill can
still become law if Congress overrides the veto with a two-thirds vote.)
Chapter 6, Section 3
Representing the People (pages 151–155)
Did You Know? Congress established the Library of
Congress in 1800 to provide research and reference materials for
members of Congress. Since then the library has expanded to
serve other government agencies, scholars, and the public. It now
serves as a national library, but it remains a part of the legislative
branch. The president appoints the Librarian of Congress, with
the approval of the Senate.
I. Requirements and Benefits of Congress (pages 151–152)
A. Both senators and members of the House must live in the state they represent. House
members usually live in their districts, but are not required to do so. Senators must
be at least 30 years old; House members, 25. Senators must have been citizens for at
least nine years; House members, seven years.
B. Most members of Congress have college degrees. Nearly half are lawyers.
C. Members receive a salary of $150,000, free office space, and trips to their home states.
They have the franking privilege—they may send job-related mail for free.
D. The Constitution grants senators and representatives immunity, or legal protection,
in some situations. They may not break the law, though.
Discussion Question
What are some benefits that members of Congress enjoy? (Along with their $150,000
salary, members of Congress receive free office space, parking, and trips to their home states.
They have franking privileges and immunity in some situations. They have low-cost life
insurance and use of a gymnasium, special restaurants, and a medical clinic.)
II. Congressional Staff: Behind-the-Scenes Helpers (pages 152–153)
A. The personal staff run the offices. They gather information on issues, arrange meetings,
and write speeches. They handle requests from voters. They deal with reporters
and lobbyists—people hired by private groups to influence government decision
makers. The staff works for the member’s reelection on their own time.
B. Members of Congress hire students from their home states or districts to serve as
interns and pages. Interns help with research and office duties. Pages deliver messages
and run errands.
C. Committee staffs generally have expert knowledge about special topics, such as taxes
or defense. They draft bills, gather information, organize committee hearings, and
negotiate with lobbyists.
D. The Library of Congress provides information for members of Congress and their
staffs. The Library’s Congressional Research Service looks up facts and spells out arguments
for and against bills.
E. The General Accounting Office reviews spending activities of federal agencies, studies
programs, and recommends ways to spend taxpayers’ dollars wisely.
F. The Congressional Budget Office provides information and analyses to help Congress
create a budget. It estimates costs and economic effects of programs.
Chapter 6, Section 3 (continued)
Discussion Question
How could you benefit from serving as a congressional intern or page? (This
experience gives young people a firsthand look at the political process.)
III. Members of Congress at Work (pages 153–155)
A. Congressional sessions begin each January 3. In representing the people who elected
them, members of Congress carry out three major jobs.
B. Congress members make laws. They introduce bills, work on committees, listen
to input for and against bills, and then vote.
C. Congress members do casework—they troubleshoot for people from their home
district or state who request help in dealing with the federal government.
D. Congress members protect the interests of their state or district. For example, a
senator from a state with strong timber industries might seek to influence logging
policies.
E. Members also work to gain a share of national government spending for their constituents.
A government contract can bring a lot of money to local businesses and jobs
for local people. Government projects and grants that primarily benefit the home
district or state are called pork-barrel projects.
Discussion Question
What kinds of casework problems do congressional staffs solve? (Most problems
constituents have involve the government bureaucracy. The staffs handle problems such
as a Social Security check that doesn’t arrive or a veteran’s claim that is held up.)
Chapter 6, Section 4
How a Bill Becomes a Law (pages 157–161)
Did You Know? The House and Senate chambers are
housed in the United States Capitol. This stately building sits
on Capitol Hill near the center of Washington, D.C. The Capitol’s
540 rooms contain art depicting important events and people in
United States history. As a citizen, you can visit the Capitol and
enjoy its beauty. With a pass from your senator or representative,
you can even attend a session of Congress and watch your lawmakers
in action.
I. Types of Bills (pages 157–158)
A. Of the more than 10,000 bills introduced each congressional term, only several
hundred become law.
B. Bills fall into two categories. Private bills concern individual people or places. Public
bills apply to the entire nation and involve general matters like taxation, civil rights,
or terrorism.
C. Congress also considers different kinds of resolutions, or formal statements expressing
lawmakers’ opinions or decisions. Many resolutions do not have the force of law.
Joint resolutions are passed by both houses of Congress and do become law if
signed by the president.
Discussion Question
Describe some ways in which Congress might use joint resolutions. (Congress uses
joint resolutions to propose constitutional amendments, to designate money for a special
purpose, and to correct errors in bills already passed.)
II. From Bill to Law (pages 158–161)
A. Ideas for bills come from members of Congress, citizens, and the White House. Other
bills are suggested by special-interest groups, or organizations of people with some