Historical Research: Techniques & Approaches

UNIT 1

HISTORICAL RESEARCH: TECHNIQUES & APPROACHES

WHAT IS HISTORY?

It sounds such a simple question. But it can cause a lot of disagreement. Napoleon called it 'a myth' and Henry Ford called it 'bunk'! Other people think it is much more important, believing, like the American historian David McCullough, that "History is who we are and why we are the way we are."

History according to the Webster Dictionary:

is a chronological record of significant events (as affecting a nation or institution) often including an explanation of their causes

History according to the Collins Dictionary:

isa record or account, often chronological in approach, of past events, developments, etc.

Whatever people think about the usefulness of history most will agree that history is the study of the past. In fact, historians are a bit like detectives - using evidence to find out what happened and why. Historians need to be able to recognise evidence, decide how useful it is and come to conclusions based on what they have found out.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY HISTORICAL SOURCES

What is a Primary Source?

A primary source is firsthand testimony or direct evidence that is usually recorded or created during the time period of the topic under investigation. A Primary Source is an original record. Primary sources can be letters, journals, diaries, parish registers, files, reports, maps, plans and drawings, photographs, films, videos, slides or sound recordings. They are called primary sources because the information they contain is original or first-hand. Primary Sources are, in effect, eyewitness accounts of past events.
When you use primary sources, it is you who interprets the source. You are the one who decides what it means. Archives as primary sources provide a great opportunity for people to analyse information and reach their own conclusions about events and people of the past.
Newspapers published at the time of the event are a useful starting point for a historical study. But they are not 'primary sources', because the articles are the journalists' interpretation of the events.
What is a Secondary Source?
A secondary source is a work that interprets or analyses an historical event. It is generally at least one step removed from the event, and can be recorded or created anywhere from days to centuries later. A Secondary Source is not an original record. Some of the most familiar examples of secondary sources are books, newspapers and magazines. They are known as 'secondary sources' because the information they contain is someone else's interpretation of events. Most information on the Internet is secondary. You need to think about who wrote the information and examine the source to see if there are any clues as to why the author may have interpreted the source in the way they have.
In using primary sources it is important to be aware of the wider context into which these primary sources fit. This is where Secondary Sources are invaluable. Secondary Sources provide a background of information on a period or an event that can help explain the context of primary sources.

For example, in reading a letter from a tenant to the agent of an estate in Ireland in 1847, detailing the difficulties as a result of the death of a cow, it is helpful to be aware that 1847 was considered the worst year of the Irish Famine. In addition, a Secondary Source can provide valuable information in relation to the relations between tenant, agent and landlord that would help a researcher understand some of the nuances in such a letter.
However, just as primary sources are a product of their time, so too are secondary sources. Remember, Secondary Sources are interpretations by someone, such as a historian or a journalist, of events. This person carries with them their own "baggage" which can reflect in their interpretation of the past. Perspective is an important feature to note in any source we use, to come to conclusions. Our interpretation of history is always changing and we can all play a role in interpreting sources in new and interesting ways.

WHERE CAN YOU ACCESS THE FOLLOWING SOURCES?

Maps______

Photographs______

Written Sources______

Oral Sources______

DEMONSTRATE A CRITICAL AWARENESS OF THE VALUE OF DIFFERENT PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

Every book, article, or other resource must be evaluated to determine its quality and its relevance to your topic. It is important to be able to evaluate materials you use for research purposes.

The ability to determine the authenticity and research value of primary source material is a skill that needs to be developed over time.

Below are some issues which indicate the value of primary sources:

they were produced at the same time as the events they describe, so the information they contain is original
they were not written separately from the events they documented
they rarely contain someone else's view of the events
they allow historians to make their own analyses and judgments of the information without having to consider someone else's interpretation and/or opinions

Using primary sources

A number of issues have to be considered when using primary sources:

when was the document produced: was is close to the time and place of the event?
why was it produced?
for whom was it produced? (for private 'consumption' or for public/propaganda reasons)
are there any clues in the document through which the content may be cross-checked?

The researcher also needs to be able to evaluate secondary sources. Below are some of the issues which need to be taken into account:

Can you determine the author's credentials (such as education, current position, etc.)?
Is the author qualified to write authoritatively on a certain topic?
When was the book or article published? Is the date of publication appropriate for your topic? Information in the sciences is updated frequently, and research on scientific topics demands up-to-date information. However, research in the humanities and some social sciences is not so dependent on currency of information, and older materials may prove extremely appropriate.
Do you recognise the name of the publisher? Probably not. In general, if the publisher is a university press, for example, Cork University Press, the source is scholarly. Other publishers have excellent reputations and are well known in certain disciplines.
If you are doing research in journal literature, it is critical to determine if the journal you are looking at is considered scholarly, popular, or trade. An excellent local historical journal is the Journal of the Cork Historical & Archaeological Society (JCHAS).
Who did the author write the work for? Others in his field? The general population?
Objectivity/Bias : It is sometimes quite difficult to distinguish solid research and logical arguments from propaganda and flights of reason. It is wise to look at an author's choice of words. Some words and phrases can be emotional.
Does the material cover your topic as you thought it would? If it looks at your research topic only marginally, you may need to select other sources.
What does this source add to what you already know about your topic? Is it updating what has been established in a field? Have you read similar facts and interpretations in other sources? Remember, you will need to consult a number of sources to get a well-balanced view of your topic.

FUNCTIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF ARCHIVES, LIBRARIES AND RESEARCH INSTITUTES

Archives

Archives are places where records of all types and formats are kept and made accessible for research and other purposes. Archives are also records which are worthy of being kept permanently because of their enduring historical value or their administrative/legal value.They are mainly original records in various forms, for example, letters and correspondence, manuscripts, diaries, files, minutes of meetings, reports, posters, pamphlets, deeds and legal documents, photographs, maps, plans and drawings, financial account books, and even electronic records. Archives may be created by an individual or a family, or by a public body such as a Local Authority, or also by a private institution such as a business, society, club, union or religious organisation. Certain valuable and rare publications might also be regarded as 'archival'. 'Local records' and 'local archives' are defined in the Local Government Act 2001, Section 80. It is important to note that archives are not just 'old records', as archival records are being produced all the time by local authorities and others.
Archives contain unique textual, visual and cartographic information and evidence about institutions, places, people and events. They are a rich source of evidence about our history, culture and identity for the use of the public, academic researchers, local historians, students, teachers, archaeologists, the media, genealogists, writers, artists, and local authority staff. Most of the information in archives is not available from a printed or published source, or the internet. Archives are the raw material of history-writing, but may also be used to promote an awareness of our local heritage and cultural identity, for example through exhibitions, publications and lectures. Well organised, accessible, and well-preserved archives are a major heritage asset to the Cork region.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF ARCHIVES?

Eg 1: The National Archives, Dublin

The records acquired by the National Archives are referred to in the National Archives Act, 1986, as archives and the Act designates the functions of the National Archives as follows:

The preservation, restoration, arrangement and description of archives;
The preparation of guides, lists, indexes and other finding aids to archives;
Making archives available for public inspection;
Making and providing copies of archives;
The publication of archives, finding aids and other material relating to archives;
The provision of educational services relating to archives.

Eg 2: Cork City & County Archives (Cartlann Cathrach agus Chontae Chorcaí) was established in 1971 and was one of the very first local archives services to be set up in Ireland. The Archives is jointly funded by Cork City Council, Cork County Council and University College Cork. The City and CountyArchivist is Brian McGee.

The CorkCity and CountyArchives carries out the following main functions and services:

Designated archives service for Cork Local Authority records.
Preservation of local archives relating to the history of CorkCity and County;
Facilitating public research of local archives;
Promotion of awareness and appreciation of our local history and heritage.

Appraisal and Acquisition
Archives must be located and acquired by the Archives. Sometimes archives are at risk and may have to be rescued from a basement or attic. On other occasions, archives may have to be separated from records with limited long-term value, a process known as Appraisal. The work of acquiring archives is an ongoing task. Archival institutions are normally delighted to hear from those with information about any archives, including family material, which are relevant to the history of CorkCity or County.

Preservationand Conservation
The preservation of archives is the central role of the Archives. Archives are stored securely in special environmental conditions. Collections of archives are cleaned and damage treated and then stored in archival containers and folders. Some documents require repairs and conservation by a professional Conservator. The Archives may also be facing the challenge of preserving electronic records.

Descriptive Listing
The process of descriptive listing is needed to make collections of archives available for research. The descriptive list helps a researcher to locate relevant documents and explains the origin and arrangement of a collection. Listing work is prioritised according to the research value of collections and the Archives available resources.

Exhibition, Outreach, Digitisation
The Archives promotes an awareness of local heritage and the value of local archives through exhibitions and outreach activities such as lectures and group visits.

Archives Holdings
Archives held include: Minute books, files, correspondence and maps and other archives of Cork City Council and Cork County Council and urban Town Councils, as well as the archives of various defunct local authorities.

Theprivately deposited holdings are remarkable in extent and quality, and include major collections of personal papers, business records, landed estate and solicitors' papers, the records of various private organisations, labour unions, charitable bodies and school records. Virtually all aspects of the social, economic, political, commercial and cultural history of Cork are represented to some degree within the collection. This is a major heritage asset to the Cork region.

Libraries

In Ireland, public libraries come under the responsibility of local authorities. In Cork, we have two local authorities, Cork City Council and Cork County Council.

CorkCity Library

Cork City Libraries provide a network of libraries, comprising the Central Library, which includes specialist services,six Local Libraries serving their local communities, and one mobile library. The Central Library is situated on the Grand Parade. Local Libraries are at Hollyhill, St Mary’s Road, Mayfield, Tory Top, Douglas, and Bishopstown,and the mobile library serves Mahon and Blackrock.

In the Central and Local Libraries, there is a wide selection of books, magazines, newspapers, and a number of DVDs, CDs, and talking books.

Cork CountyLibrary

Cork County Library has 28 branches and six mobile libraries throughout the county. This library service provides the community with a comprehensive range of material for information, study and recreation.

The first Cork County Librarian was Michael O' Donovan, better known as Frank O' Connor, famous short story writer and novelist. The 20 small centres that O' Donovan had established in schools and villages around CountyCork by May 1926 have expanded in the intervening years to a network of 28 branch libraries (of which fifteen are full-time, that is open for over 32 hours per week) and six mobile libraries.

The level of reference service provision in Cork County Library's network of branches and mobile libraries varies with the size of each service point. However, a basic range of reference resources (encyclopaedias and dictionaries) at a minimum is available in every branch. Each branch library and service point is supported by the staff and resources at the HQ Reference Department.

Cork County Library subscribes to several online reference resources, and these can be accessed free of charge at all of the branch libraries.

Reference and Local Studies is a specialist section at the CountyLibrary. It answers requests daily for information on a wide range of topics, mainly local history, genealogy and general reference queries. This section has an extensive collection of specialist reference works, encyclopaedias, almanacs, yearbooks, atlases and other reference tools. It is also the CountyLibrary's main repository for local history materials, including books, newspapers and maps.

What are the functions and responsibilities of the Library?

to implement a comprehensive selection policy covering all types of materials and designed to meet all types of needs
to ensure that every child has easy access to the library and to recognise the importance of reading for children and young people
to act as a centre for literacy and information skills
to maintain close contact with all schools and regular and close liaison with educational services
to support adult independent lifelong learning, for adults who study on their own, usually outside formal education
to provide reference and information resources which are capable of meeting the needs of the communities for social, cultural, political and economic information
to provide information on the policies and activities of local authorities, local and central government and the public sector in general
to ensure that properly trained and qualified staff are available to help the public make use of the Reference and Local Studies section etc
to promote local studies resources and to collect, record and preserve, using appropriate media, copies of all printed, audio and visual material relating to life of the community
to actively promote awareness of the primary sources for local studies
to provide an information service to isolated areas through the use of the Mobile Library Service

Research Institute

The Irish National Institute for Historical Research, UniversityCollegeCork

The Irish National Institute for Historical Research of University College Cork was founded to promote the study of History and will become a major focus for historical research in Ireland. The Institute will host a range of seminars, conferences and symposia.

The Institute is dedicated to the promotion of the study of History and to facilitating links and networks of historians within Ireland and with international scholars and to disseminate their findings. It strives to generate a deep understanding of the importance of the past for academics, policy makers, teachers and the public. By providing a range of services further to develop and enhance historical research, it will give leadership and a focus for historical research and activities within Ireland. It will also host a range of events related to the study of History to augment the research culture of History in Ireland at local, regional, national and international levels.

Functions of the Institute

to create an institute that will become the focus for the study of History in Ireland and to provide a portal for Faculty, postgraduate students and the public to historical research
to foster, generate and disseminate research within the field and to related disciplines
to host a range of seminars, conferences and symposia
to foster research networks, bringing together scholars working in related areas
to seek funding for particular research projects and where possible to consolidate institutional links with like-minded institutes
to provide a range of training in historical methods, skills and abilities for the postgraduate community
to increase the number of research students and to develop a set of MA programmes that reflect the strength of the Institute faculty
to raise funds to further the programmes and to assist postgraduate research, travel and archival work
to act as a base of expertise for media and other consultation

A CRITICAL AWARENESS OF THE HISTORIAN