Investigating Strategies for Improving Teaching and Learning in Large Classes for Basic Education Support in Uganda
Contents
1. Introduction3
2. Conceptual Clarification4
2.1 Large Class4
2.2 Effective Teaching and Learning5
3. Objectives of the Study6
4. Significance of the Study7
5. Methodology7
5.1Research Design7
5.2 Sample Selection8
5.3 Data Collection8
5.4 Data Analysis9
6.Sustainability9
7. Research Plan9
8.References
9. Appendices
9.1Research Team
9.2 Budget
1. Introduction
Uganda as a partner of the Education for All (EFA) coalition launched Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1997. Although four children per family had originally been targeted, doors were later opened to all school age going children in the country. This resulted into the increase of primary school enrolment figures from 2.7 million pupils in 1996 to 5.3 million in 1997, and to 7.1 million in 2005 (MoE&S, 2003:42, Makubuya, 2005:3). Even though this was followed by a drastic increase in the number of teachers and classrooms, the current official average pupil-to-teacher ratio is 51:1. The reality, however, is that in many classrooms in various schools across the country, there are over 80 pupils in one classroom especially in lower classes (Primary One to Three, i.e., Year 6-8).
It cannot be refuted that the introduction of UPE led to an increase in the national literacy levels - the national average literacy level rose from 65% in 1999/2000 to 70% in 2002/03. The increased enrolment of pupils in schools as a result of UPE has also meant that Ugandais on the path of achieving the Universal Primary Education Millennium Development Goal (MDG)in as far as access is concerned. The current net enrollment ratio (NER) is about 90%.However, a lot still needs to be done in as far as quality is concerned. This issue was critically highlighted in the recent Education Sector Review (2005), in which observations were made on large classes in lower primary, low completion rates, high repetition and dropout rates, low survival rates, poor teacher and headteacher attendance in school, large numbers of under and overage enrollees and low learning achievement.
The large class issue requires further investigation as it could as well be one of the major challenges affecting low learning achievements highlighted above. In classrooms where individual pupils’ learning needs have been the central focus of teaching and learning, the learning gains have tended to be high and there have been very few cases of repetition and dropout (Baker a& Westrup 2000).Large classes of over 40 pupils tend to be anonymous, i.e. children are in most cases attended to as a group, and not as individuals, and attention to individual pupils’ needs is usually difficult. In such a situation motivation to learn, and persistence at task or persistence in school, especially for the slow learners is minimised.
The contention of the proposed project is that Universities and Ministries of Education,working hand in hand with teachers in their classrooms,can innovate strategies of improvingteaching and learningin large classes through action research. Several international research studies have showed that although effective learning is more possible in smaller classes, large classes do not necessarily mean poor quality education(Gibbs et al,1997; Maged 1997; Johnson 1998; Baker & Westrup 2000; MacGregor, et. al. 2000). The real obstacle is creating a culture for organising large classes in such a manner that learning can be successfully mediated.
We recognize the fact that class size is not the only determining factor of how teaching and learning takes place effectively. There are many other factors that come into play. For example, instructional materials, teacher qualification, quality of the learner, school management, environment surrounding the school, school culture, to mention but a few. Our intention is to study schools representing different variations and characteristics to address the question of how different teachers in different contexts mediate learning in a large class.
An action research model is preferred for this project because it has proven itself best suited for research in educational contexts geared toward progressive qualitative change.
The proposed research, which is a joint project between MakerereUniversity, KyambogoUniversity and Ministry of Education and Sports, will be organised in such a way that it is a practical exposure, as opposed to the abstract/theoretical approach that is generally applied in lecture theatres in the pre-service teacher-training programmes. This practical approach nevertheless will have a solid theoretical underpinning, and the idea of teacher-as-researcher (i.e. teachers doing action research on their own practice) will be a valuable component of the project.
2. Conceptual Clarification
2.1 Large Class
There appears to be no single definition of what constitutes a large class. Many scholars from different backgrounds have viewed it from different perspectives. For example, senior academics attending a UNESCO Regional Workshop (nd) at Moi University, Kenya, had the following views about a large class.
A large class is one with more students than available facilities can support”.
“Large classes have more than 100 learners enrolled”.
There is no fixed number. The large class depends on the discipline; A smaller number for science-based subjects and larger numbers for the arts, humanities and social sciences.
“There is nothing like a large class. The large class is only in the mind of the orthodox teacher”.
In many contexts, any class over 40 pupils has generally been considered to be large. For purposes of this study, large classes to be studied will be of 80 and above pupils, taking into consideration that many schools in Uganda are characterised by class sizes close to this figure.
Most research on large classes has mainly focused on measuring the impact of large classes on teaching and learning, or on student achievement (Glass & Smith 1979; Hedges & Stock 1983; Gibbs, Lucas, & Spouse 1997, Maged 1997; Jin and Cortazzi, 1998).Major findings have been to the effect that large classes constrain teaching and learning, and therefore, contribute to low student achievement. Among others, large classes limit regular and in-depth discussions with students, timely and frequent feedback to students and active problem solving, all which are key to facilitating meaningful learning.
On the other hand, there has been research which has revealed that it is also possible to have effective teaching and learning in a large class. The most important factor is the quality of the teacher. For example a study by Bain (1989) quoted in Maged (1997), which was conducted in United States revealed that some teachers of large classes were as effective as their counterparts teaching smaller classes. In the study, fifty effective US teachers and the materials they used were studied to determine what effective teachers did to promote learning in reading and mathematics. Of the 50 teachers, 43 had small classes or large classes with an aide (Any class with over 40 pupils was regarded large).Seven teachers had large classes without an aide.Admittedly the majority of effective teachers were effective in smaller classes.But the study also showed that effective teaching was possible in large classes as well, as showed by the seven teachers who had no aide.Effective teachers reflected the following traits:
a)high expectations for student learning;
b)provided clear and focused instruction;
c)closely monitored student learning process;
d)re-taught using alternative strategies when children did not learn;
e)used incentives and rewards to promote learning;
f)were highly efficient in their classroom routine;
g)set and enforced high standards for classroom behaviour;
h)maintained excellent personal interaction with students;
i)reflected enthusiasm in the form of acting, demonstration and role playing.
Similarly, a smaller study conducted in South Africa that involved 3 teachers (A, B & C), all teaching small and large classes at the same level of education in very closely similar contexts showed that the teacher’s pedagogy was the critically determining factor in the quality of what (or if) pupils learnt (Maged 1997).Teacher A was generally effective during class teaching irrespective of the size of the class.Similarly Teacher C was less effective irrespective of the size of the class.The large class of Teacher A achieved significantly better academic results than the small class of Teacher C and the large class of Teacher A had significantly fewer failures than the small class of Teacher C.
From the preceding preliminary literature, it is evident that sufficient research has been done to bring in focus the reasons why smaller classes may lead to improved students outcome than large classes. But there is also evidence that effective teaching is possible in large classes. The required research now is to investigate possible forms of class organisation and teaching styles, which are suitable for mediating learning in large classes in various contexts.This is particularly necessary in Uganda, where the problem of large classes is likely to prevail for some time due to the massive resources that need to be invested into the system to bring the pupil-teacher ratio to 40:1 and below. Large classes are also likely to continue to exist given that Universal Post-Primary and Education Training (UPPET) is soon starting. Studies into the drop-out issue in Uganda indicated that many children had dropped out of school because they had no hope of continuing to the post-primary level (Annual Education Abstracts).
2.2 Effective Teaching and Learning
The proposed project views teaching and learning that is situated within a social constructivist framework as being effective. This is because, much educational research (such as Burbules 2000, Chi 1996, Chi 1994, Cole and Wertsch 2003, Oldfather, et.al. 1999, Selly 1999 and Terwel 1999) supports social constructivism as a theory of knowledge that enables teachers to promote their students’ meaningful learning. It can no longer be refuted in educational circles that pupils learn best when they are actively involved in the task and in collaboration with others (the teacher or other peers).This social constructivist thinking derives mostly from the theories of Vygotsky (1978).
We begin off with a theoretical framework here because our theories about what constitutes knowledge, what it means to know and how we come to know have a major impact on the ways we teach and on the ways pupils experience learning.
In the social constructivist view of knowledge, learning is constructed through interactions with others. A social constructivist perspective focuses on learning as sense-making rather than on the acquisition of rote knowledge that is transmitted by the teacher.
Social constructivist teachers help their pupils understand that they are co-constructors of knowledge, that they can make sense of things themselves, and that they have the power to seek knowledge and to attempt to understand the world. That is to say, students develop a sense of their active role as producers – not only consumers – of knowledge.
This does not mean that in a social constructivist classroom learning is haphazard. The teacher provides students with information if they have misconceptions. Often, however, the teacher does not simply “tell” the right answer immediately. Instead, the teacher takes an active role in scaffolding students’ understanding to new levels, challenging them to think through their ideas by presenting them with provoking tasks, puzzles and/or contradictory evidence, asking them to show evidence and consider alternatives. But within this process, the emphasis is on how pupils build their own understanding, which at times includes learning from their mistakes.
3. Objectives of the Study
Since the introduction of Universal Primary Education in 1997, the Government of Uganda through its Ministry of Education and Sports has committed itself to the improvement of the quality of basic education through the provision of essential inputs such as trained teachers, classrooms, furniture and essential textbooks. For example, before the introduction of UPE, there were 81,564 teachers on government payroll. To-date, the number of teachers on payroll is 129,000. The current number of classrooms stands at 82,165, as apposed to 45,000 classrooms before UPE. A substantial proportion of Ministry of Education and Sport’s annual budget has been spent to increase the supply of instructional materials to schools. These include core textbooks; teacher guides; supplementary readers and non-text book materials. As a result of these efforts, the pupil textbook ratios have improved from 8:1 in 2000 to 3:1, and 1:1 in some schools in 2005.
What is needed now is universities complementing the efforts of government, by researching into the process of teaching and learning at the classroom level. Quality cannot only be judged by the number of inputs into the system, but also, and most importantly, by how the inputs are utilised in the classrooms of varying characteristics to enhance learning.
Specifically, the study intends to:
- Investigate, through literature review, issues relating to the teaching of large classes, with a specific focus on those providing practical teaching suggestions and examples of good practice.
- Identify issues emerging in the teaching of large classes in Uganda, the strategies that teachers have developed over time to deal with the situation, and the institutional responses to the challenges.
- Implement an action strategy in which teachers reflect on their practice, share with one another, and try out new strategies with a view to enhancing teaching and learning in their large classrooms.
- Disseminate identified good practice to the wider circles through targeted workshops.
4. Significance of the Study
Using “ the large class” as an entry point, the proposed research is hoped to contribute to improving teaching and learning in Ugandan schools through the identification of emerging issues, supporting the identification of effective strategies for enhancing learning and encouraging the dissemination and adoption of these strategies across the primary education sector.
5. Methodology
5.1 Research Design
The research will be mainly qualitative, based on an action research design to innovate new ways of mediating learning in the selected large classrooms. The action research approach is preferable because of its participatory nature. Action research has been defined by Reason and Badbury (2001: 1) as:
…a participatory, democratic process concerned with developing practical knowing in the pursuit of worthwhile human purposes, grounded in a participatory worldview… It seeks to bring together action and reflection, theory and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to people, and more generally the flourishing of individual persons and their communities.
There is no doubt large classes are a pressing need to teachers in primary schools in Uganda. Our argument is that it is the teachers themselves who are well suited to find practical solutions to the problem. Others, such as university lecturers and Ministry of Education officials, can only work with them as partners, but not merely as experts who come to show or tell them the best way of dealing with the problem.
“Action research challenges the claims of a positivistic view of knowledge which holds that in order to be credible, research must remain objective and value-free” (Brydon-Miller, et al. 2003:11). In this research, we shall embrace the concept of knowledge as a social construct, recognising the fact that most meaningful research is embedded within a system of values that promote some model of human interaction. We contend that the overriding purpose of social research should be the improvement of social practice. Indeed it is the commitment of action research to bring about change or improvement as part of the research. This is why besides investigating what constraints teachers face in large classes, we, in collaboration with the teachers, shall investigate and try out possible forms of class organisation and teaching styles, which are suitable for mediating learning in large classes.
5.2 Sample Selection
Using the Education Management Information System (EMIS) data, a cross-section of twenty schools will be surveyed from Wakiso District for purposes of identifying four comparable schools in which the action research will finally be implemented.The district is selected because it offers a variety of schools with different characteristics such as rural and urban, class size, high and poor performing schools, schools with teachers of varying qualifications, children of various economic, social and academic backgrounds, government and private schools, boarding and day schools, to mention but a few.
While we wish to undertake an in-depth study, our intention is also to study schools representing different variations and characteristics as much as possible to address the question of how different teachers in different contexts mediate learning in a large class. Hence the said preliminary baseline study in twenty schools which will be aimed at, among others, identifying schools of multiple characteristics.We don’t intend to control any factor, but to take each factor that comes into play as a learning opportunity to comprehend issues emerging in large classes.
The research will be focused onlower primary (Primary 1-3) in the selected schools, particularly teachers of language and mathematics. These subjects are preferred because the main purpose of basic education is the achievement of numeracy and literacy, the foundation of which should be nurtured right from the lower classes. The significance attached to mathematics and language in Uganda’s education system can also be inferred from the fact that the two subjects, unlike others, appear daily on the time-table. The argument for focusing on lower classes is that they are the foundation of primary schooling. Besides, they are generally free from the Primary Leaving Examination pressure. Most schools start preparing children for the PLE right from primary five, and engaging them in alternative ways of teaching at this level or above,might be regarded as time wastage.
5.3 Data Collection
The study will use a multi-method approach relating to the research objectives. These will include the following:
- Literature review to investigate issues relating to large classes in other contexts/countries, to identify practical teaching suggestions and case studies of good practice.
- Open-ended interviews, classroom observations and lesson analysis to identify issues emerging in the teaching of large classes in Uganda, the strategies that teachers have developed over time to deal with the situation, and the institutional responses to the challenges involved in achieving good teaching and learning in large classes.
- Workshops to identify issues emerging in the teaching of large classes in Uganda, as well as to disseminate good practice identified from the literature review and from the classroom observations and interviews.
- Lesson study and journal keeping to facilitate the implementation of an action strategy in which teachers will reflect on their practice, share with one another, and try out new strategies with a view to enhancing their teaching and learning in large classrooms.
5.4 Data Analysis