Thoseobservingthescenespeculated Thattheservants

MESOPOTAMIA:

CradleofCivilization

ntheTigris-Euphrates valleyofpresent-dayIraqlaytheancient Sumerian city­state ofUr.Between1924 and1934,anarchaeological teamledbyLeonardWoolleyconducted excavations that uncovered theancient ruins. AmongWoolley'sfindingswasanincredible discovery.InthetombofQueenShub-Ad,theteamdiscov­eredtheremainsofmorethan60femaleskeletons.Clothingremnants andjewelleryindicatedthelikelihoodthattheyhadbeen women ofthecourt. Nearbyweretheremains ofsoldierswiththeirspears, aharpistclutchinghisharp,andoxenstillharnessed towagons. Thehands ofmostoftheskeletonswereraisedtowardstheirmouths. Littleclaycupswerescatteredonthefloorofthetomb.Whatcould have

happenedhere?

Thoseobservingthescenespeculated thattheservants ofthedeadqueenhadfollowedthebodyintothetomb.There,theyhadtakenpoisonsothattheirmistresswouldnotgoontotheafterlifealone....

Urwasjustoneofthegreatcity-statesofSumer,partofancientMesopotamia.LeonardWoolley'sdiscoverypointstosomeremarkablecharacteristicsof thecityanditspeople.Duringtheperiod ofQueenShub-Ad'sreign,Urwastheseatofamag­nificentcourtandahighlysophisticatedsocietywithsoldiers,courtservants,musicians,andmanyothers. ThediscoveryalsorevealsanimportantaspectofMesopotamian culture-aprofoundbeliefinanafterlife,andadesiretotakesomeearthlybelongingstotheworldafterdeath.

Foralmost3000years,city-statesandempires

roseandfellinMesopotamia.Amongtheempireswere Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, andChaldea.Althnnnh A;n,.lonf,.l;o.,_;,_. ---..----'-<L-

upon. Today,westillconsider Mesopotamiaasa

"cradleofcivilization."

THELANDBETWEENTHERIVERS

AncientMesopotamialayinwhatweknowtodayasIraq,northeastSyria,andpartofsoutheastTurkey.It stretched fromthe Persian Gulf northwestthrough the valleyoftheTigrisandEuphratesrivers.Theancient GreekswerethefirsttocalltheregionMesopotamia.TheGreekwordmesomeansmiddleandpotamosmeans river-thusitwas

,,...L_ 1 J 1_ •

!"'··

...oM,outitsancient history,Mes­ashome todifferent peoplesgroups.Itlayatthecrossroads

rhPnPrhvZa2:rosMountains

mud.Thefloodswereunpredictable andposedaserioushazard totherivervalleysettlements. Sometimes floodwatersand

AFRICA

sandbankshinderedtravelandcommuni­

cationalongtheriversaswell.

Thesouth hadfewnatural resourcessuchasmineralsorforestsand,exceptforclay,fewbuildingmaterials.Abundantfishandwaterfowl livedinthemarshesandrivers,however,andthesiltdepositedbythefloodwaterswasextremelyfertile. Asthepeople learned to control theflooding,draintheland,andirrigatethesoil,theregionproducedexcellentyields.

Inthenorth,rainfallwasmorereli­

ableandhelpedproducesuperbfarmland.Because thebanks andriverbedsoftheTigrisandEuphratesaremostlyrockinthisarea, ratherthansandastheyareinthesouth,theriversrunfasterandrarelyflood.Forestscoveringthefoothillsandmoun­tainsinthisarea teemedwithanimal life.Herdsofwildcattle, gazelles,antelopes,andelephants roamed the plains, wildboarsrootedthroughthevalleys,andsheep

ARABIA

DFertileCrescent

0200km

L l j

32MIDDLE E.\STERN CIVILIZ:\TIOI\S

andgoatsgrazedonthefoothills ofthemountains. Thepeopleofthenorthwerealsoclosertotheresourcesofthesurround-

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Fourmain peoplesdominated Mesopota­miainturn:theSumerians,theBabylon­ians, theAssyrians,andtheChaldeans.

SUMER

TheSumerians camedowntothebanksoftheEuphratesandTigrisriverssometimearound3500BCE fromthemountains tothenortheast.Theirsmallfarmingcom­munities eventually grewintothefirstgreatcitiesoftheworld.Duringthefirstthou­sand yearsoftheirhistory,theSumerianslivedinindependent city-states, ruledbyseparatekings.Eachcity-state,whichincludedthecityandsurroundingcountry­side,haditsowngovernment, laws,and

ingregion,suchastinfromtheeastandgoldandsilverfromthewest.

TheSumerians consideredEridu,anan­cientreligioussiteinSumer,tobethefirstcityfounded bytheir gods.By3500BCE, ithadapopulation ofabout 4000.Overthenextthousandyears,othercity-statesdevel­oped,andseveralgrewtobemuchlargerthanEridu. Ur,forexample, reached apopulation of24000by3000BCE.

Forcenturies,thecity-statesofSumer

maintainedtheirindependence.Onoccasion,differentcity-statesfoughtforcontroloverlandorirrigationrights,butthesedisputesdidnotdevelopintomajorwarsasweunder­standtheterm.Theyweremorelikeskir­mishesthatoftencontinuedonlyuntilonecitysucceededinimposingitswillovertheother. Asaresultoftheseshiftsinpower,city­statesinSumerroseandfell.Forexample,as

During timesofconflict, thekingofaSumeriancity-stateactedastheheadofthearmy,raisingtroopsandtraining them.Atfirst,thesearmieswerequitesmall, con­sistingofthelocalmenwhowerefitenoughtowieldanaxeorthrowaspear.Later,theSumerians addedwheeledchariotspulledbydonkeystotheirforces.(TheSumerianswerethefirstpeopletodevelopandusethewheel.)Thechariotsheldtwomen,adriverandasoldierwhostoodbehind,equippedwithajavelintohurlattheenemy.

Inabout 2800 BCE,Etana of Kish

managed tounitethecity-statesofSumer,buthissuccesswasshort-lived. Afterhisdeath,thecity-statesviedagainforcontrol,leavingtheweakenedSumerians ripeforconquest.Theirwealthalsomadethemattractivetooutsiders.TheAkkadians,Semiticmountainfolkanddesertnomadsfromthenorth,succeededinoverpoweringtheSumerians. SumerandAkkadwerethenunitedintothesingleempireknownasthekingdomofSumer,underSargonofAkkad(2340BCE-2305BCE).

SargonbecameknownasSargontheGreat.HewasagovernmentofficialinKishwhenheledarevolttoestablishhimselfasking. Asruler,heattackedtheSumeriancity-statestothesouth,capturing allofthem,includingthestrongest,Ur.Duringhis35-year reign, healsoinvadedbothEgyptandEthiopia,extendinghisholdingsfrom Palestine tothePersian Gulfandbuildingthefirsttrueempireinhistory.

Afterthedeath ofSargon,Sumerfellintodeclinewithonlyabriefresurgenceduring thereignofNaramsin (2291BCE-

2255 BCE).Onlythecity-stateofUrcontin­

uedtothrive,enjoyingonelastcenturyof

Figure2-5

Inlaidstatuetteofaramandaplant

Figure2-6

TheheaddressofQueenShub-ad, fromtheroyaltombofUr

itspeak.TheSumerians developed

firstknownform ofwriting, called

ture.TheEpicofGilgamesh, whichtellsofalegendarySumeriankingwhoruledUrukaround 2600BCE,istheoldestknownpieceofliteratureintheworld.Allofthesedevel­opmentshadamajorinfluenceonthelater

peoplesofMesopotamia. Although UrfinallyfellcaptivetotheElamitesfromtheeastinapproximately 2004BCE, theBabyloniansandtheAssyriansadoptedandspreadmanyaspectsofSumerianculture.

SUMER

3500 BCE·1900BCE

•SumeriansmoveinfromthenorthtotakeoverMesopotamia

(3300BCE)

•GilgameshrulesasKingofUruk(2600BCE)

•SargonofAkkadclaimsthethroneofKishandestablishes the

Akkadianempire(2340BCE)

•Naramsin(grandsonofSargon)revitalizes theempire(2291BCE)

•mountainpeopleofthenortheastoverthrowtheAkkadianempire

(2200BCE)

•resurgenceofthecityofUrunderUr-Nammu(2112BCE)

•invasionofUrbytheElamitesfromtheeast(2004BCE)

•cuneiformwritingdevelops

•inventionofthepotter'swheelaidstheadventofpottery

•asystem ofmathematics usingabaseof60isdeveloped

•alunarcalendar isdeveloped

•Sumerianculturereachesitspeak;writing,science,mythology,andlawareemphasized

•theEpicofGi/gameshbecomesanimportantliterarywork

•theBronzeAgebegins

•asystem ofcanalsandirrigationditchesisdesignedtowaterthefields

•oxenareharnessedtoploughs

•theshoulderyokeforoxenisinventedtomakeploughing easier

•theploughisredesignedtoturnthesoilratherthanjustscratch afurrow

•aseeddrillisaddedtotheplough

•theSumeriansdevelopwheeledcartsandchariots

•pulleysarecreatedtoraisewaterfromwells

•trilrlP.hP.ninwithAfriil r.vnr11Fnvnt ilnrlI Ph::mnn

BCE

sestablish anindependentkingdominnortherniawithacapitalatAshur(1300BCE)

sirpalrules,andtheAssyrians becomeapeople tobeintheneareast(884BCE)

IIattacksthecapitalofIsrael(722BCE)

erib(705 BCE)establishestheAssyriancapitalatNinevehamquersSidoninPhoenicia

don(681BCE) capturestheEgyptiancapitalofMemphisipal(668 BCE)takes theAssyrianempiretoitsgreatest

...... """'""npeopleofBabyloniaandtheMedespeopleofPersiaforcestodestroyNinevehandtheAssyrianempire(616BCE)

icalandroyalreliefstakeonnewimportancehbecomestheshowplaceoftheancientworldcontaining22000claytabletsreflectsnewinterestin

andmathematics

AssyrianslearntomakeironfromtheHittites

andNinevehbecomegreatnortherntradingcentresdrainageandsewagesystemsareperfected

pileserIllestablishes roadsandapostalserviceforthe

(745BCE)

36MIDDLE-E.\STERr\CIVILIZ:\TIOr\S

BABYLONIA

ThedeclineofSumerledtoashiftinpowernorthward,firsttoBabyloniaandthentoAssyria.TheBabylonianperiodbeganwhenSemiticnomadsfromthewest, theAm­orites,establishedtheirkingdomatthecityofBabylon.Thecityreached theheight ofitspowerduring thetimeoftheFirstDy­nasty(rulingfamily),whichlastedabout

300years.Themostsignificantrulerofthe

FirstDynastywasKingHammurabi(1792

BCE-1750 BCE),whocreated oneof theworld's firstwritten codesoflaw.Bycon­quering allofSumer,Akkadtothenorth,andlandstotheeastandwest,HammurabiisalsocreditedwithestablishingtheempireofBabylonia.TheBabyloniansweregreattraders; theirshipsreached the distantshoresofIndiaandAfrica,andtheircara­vanstravelled farintoPersia andAsiaMinor.Thegoodsandideasexchangedonthese expeditions enrichedboth theBabylonians'cultureandthecultures ofthosetheymet.

WhenHammurabi died,hewassuc­ceededbyanumberofweakkingswhohaddifficulty holdingthe empire together.WaveafterwaveofIndo-European tribesinvadedfromthenorthernmountains.TheHittitesinvadedfromAnatolia(Turkey)around 1595 BCE.Approximately 40yearslater, theKassitesinvadedBabyloniafromtheeast,andestablishedcontroloverthevalley. Inabout1300BCE, they weredisplacedbythepowerfulAssyrians.

ASSYRIA

TheAssyrianstooktheirnamefromtheirchiefcityofAshur,locatedonthebanksoftheTigrisRiverinnorthernMesopotamia.

potamiaandthesurroundinglands.Witheconomicinfluence, theAssyriansgainedpoliticalinfluenceaswell.Longunderthecontrol of Babylon, theAssyrians hadabsorbedBabylonianculture, justastheBabylonianshadabsorbedSumerianculture.Throughalongsuccessionofwarsandconquests, theAssyrianscametodomi­nateallofMesopotamia.

TheAssyrianswereamong thefiercestandmost warlike people inthe region,knownforcommitting wartimeatrocitiesagainstunarmedciviliansandtreatingcon­queredarmieswithcruelty.Theirenemieswereshownnomercy,astheAssyriansoftentorturedand killedtheircaptives.Between

1100 BCEand600BCE,Assyrian power

spreadthroughout westernAsia,asanum­berofwarriorkingssetoutonaterrorizingpathofconquest. Their effortsextendedAssyrianinfluence westtotheMediterraneanSeaandEgypt,south intoBabylon,northintoSyria,andeasttowardsPersia.

Several factors contributed to this

military success.Assyriankingsviewedpro­fessionalarmiesasessentialtoconquest,andsotheycreatedlarge,skilledarmiesthatwerewellorganizedintounitsoffoot

soldiers,charioteers,cavalry,andarchers.Mercenaries,orhiredforeignsoldiers,wereaddedtolocalarmies, andofficers weretrainedincombatstrategies.TheAssyrianshadalsolearnedthesecretofmakingironfromtheHittites,andtheyusedthatknowl­edgetomakearrowsandlancesofsuperiorquality.

TheAssyriankingTiglath-pileser III(745BCE-727 BCE)began theperiod ofexpansion bytaking DamascusinSyria.Afterhisdeath, apowerstruggleforsucces­sioncontinueduntilSargonII(722BCE-

705BCE)seized thethrone.SargonIImade

IsraelanAssyrianprovinceandbroughttheIsraelitesintohisempire.HissonSenn­acherib (705BCE-681 BCE)conqueredSidoninPhoenicia,andthenEsarhaddon(681 BCE-668 BCE)conquered Egypt.ButthegreatestAssyrianempire builderofthemallwasAshurbanipal(668BCE-626BCE).Hesucceeded inrulingmoreoftheknownworldthan anyotherrulerbeforehim.Evenmoreimportant, hemanagedtoholdtheempireintactthroughouthisentirereign.

Ashurbanipal treated allconqueredpeoples,bothcivilian andmilitary, withgreatcruelty.Heplunderedhisconquered

a J

continuouslytoaddtotherich­dhisowncities along the Tigris. HispalaceatNinevehwasdecorated

gold andivoryfrom Egypt,silverfromSyria,lapislazuli(adeepbluefrom Persia,andthefinest of

•llOmcedarwood.

Yet,withallhismilitarism and plun­der,Ashurbanipalshowedakeeninterestinbothscienceandmathematics. Hecon­structedagardenandzooathispalace,stockedfromallpartsofhisempire, andestablished a librarycontainingover

22000claytabletsthatshowedhisspecial

Caucasus Mountains

r:-:---:"1 Empireof

L..: J Ashurbanipal (c.646BcE)

interestinscienceandmathematics.

Atthepeakofitspower,thesprawlingAssyrianempire spilledoverthebounds ofMesopotamia,andasinglerulerhadgreatdifficultyholdingittogether. Asaresult,theAssyriansbegantoexperienceseriousattacks ontheir borders. Atthesametime,their conquered provinceofBabylonia,insouthern Mesopotamia,struggled togainitsindependence.

Shortly afterthedeathof Ashur­banipal,theBabyloniansandtheforeignMedesunited to overthrow Assyria.Thecapital, Nineveh,wascaptured andde­stroyedin612BCE. TheAssyriansthem­selves,oncesopowerful,werekilledorassimilated,andtheirempiredisappeared.

CHALDEA

Afterthecollapse oftheAssyrianempire,BabylononceagainbecameanimportantcentreinMesopotamia.Thecityhad been

38MIDDLE-EASTERNCIVILIZATIONS

0200km

llj

Scale

I

Figure2-10

AncientMesopotamia:Sumer,Babylonia,Assyria,Chaldea

beforethecollapseofAssyria,butitsglorywasgreatestduring the70yearsafterthedestructionofNineveh.Duringthisperiod,itwasruledbytheChaldeans, aSemiticpeoplewhohadsettledinthefertileareaofsouthern BabylonianearthePersianGulfabout1000 BCE.

TheChaldean king Nebuchadnezzar

(604BCE-562 BCE)transformed Babylonintooneofthemostbeautifulcitiesoftheworld. Nebuchadnezzar, asnoted inthe

Bihle. was awarrior king:_Hecon(lllererl

-Sumer,2500BCE

BBabylonia,1700BCE

Assyria,625BCE

oners.HeonlystoppedhisconquestofEgyptwhenheheardofhisfather'sdeathandhisownsuccessiontothethrone.Manyhistori­ans,however, notethatNebuchadnezzarfoughtfewerbattlesthan theAssyriankingsandshouldbe remembered as agreatbuilderratherthanasawarrior.

LikemanyempiresofMesopotamia,theChaldean empire felltoinvaders. By

549BCE,theChaldeanswerechallengedby anewalliance oftheMedesandthePersian king Cyrus(550BCE-529BCE).Babylonwithstoodasiegeforseveralyears,butultimately theChaldeans were nomatchforCyrusofPersia. Accordingtolegend,onenighthehadhisarmydigaditch around BabylontodiverttheEu­phrates Riverfromitsnormalcourse.Theinvadersthenmarchedintothecityuptheoldriverbed,andproceeded tokillBel­shazzar,theChaldeanking,andhispalaceguards.Thecityitselfwasspared, butthePersians becamethenewrulersofagrow­inginternationalworld.

DTemple

=Road