MORFOLÓGIA ANJ
VERBS
The term- ..
2.1 Subclassification and characteristics of English verbs
-There are 3 major categories of verbs according to their function within the verb phrase:
A)Lexical verbs (full-meaning verbs) – read, speak, call
-They can stand on its own, they can be used in whatever tenses, they belong to open system
B)Primary auxiliary verbs – be, have, do
-Help us to create tenses
C)Modal auxiliary verbs (modal auxiliaries) – can, may, should, etc.
-They show us aspect – he can do it, he must do that?
-They are followed by infinitives
-They have no „s“ inflection
-They have no inflection, they can occur in the base form
-They can have several meanings:
He can play the piano - He can be there
It express ability - deduction
Imust go there. He must have been there
It express dutity, obligation. Its deduction. Apast reference, past infinitive
It can be agreat experience
It can have been agreat experience
possibility
-b and c- closed system
-do and have as lexical verbs: Idid it yesterday. Ihad anew car. (they express action themselves, they have some concrete lexical meaning)
-as auxiliary verbs: Did you read this book? ( helps us to create the question in the simple past tens)
Lexical verbs
-last year
Characteristic features of modal verbs
Marginal modal verbs= okrajové, they can be used also as lexical verbs
-but some of them! = need, ought to, dare, used to
-as alexical ver also as primary au.
Examples
As lexical verbs: Do you need my help?
As modal aux. Verbs: He neednt go there.
Dynamic/progressive verbs
Stative- only in simple sentences
Examples: dynamic- Hed rove the car very fast. Im reading the book.
Stative- Ilove him.
Verbs, which can be used both: Hes smelling his coffee. It smells terrible
Verb forms....and function
He is calling her.
Calling early, Ifound them.
= 1. Finite verb phrase, person is expressed, we have tense reference, present reference, he and the form of verb,
= 2. Non- finite verb form, is apart awhole non-finite clause
-the person is not expressed, no tense distinction, it cant stand alone
features of afinite verb phrase and non finite verb phrases
Finite: Today Iknow anything.
Nonfinite: To be agood student means to study hard. Writing all day, Ihavent able to do anythning else.(ing-form)
The –ed form:
-perfective aspect: Ihave read this book yet.
-Passive voice. He was born in New york.
-Ed participle clauses (non finite): Cooked to fast, the soup was not tasty.
Štvrtok: 9 lekcia zopakovat
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He can be calling him now. (snáď mu teraz volá = my deduction)
- aspect can be expresed. Present infinitive
He can swim – express ability (could- past ability)
He must be called again. (snáď možno mu včera volal)
-Form of the verb will be the same
He should have been called yesterday.(mali im zavolat)
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The other uses of non.finite complex infinitive forms
Compare examples:
People throught that Linda had paid too much. (active voice, areporting verb think, past reference)
-Linda was thought to have paid too much. (passive voice, areporting verb, past/perfect infinitive)
-People believe that Mary is living abroad. (active voice, areporting verb believe, present reference)
-Mary is believed to be living abroad. (passive voice, areporting verb, present progressive infinitive)
-Mary was believed to be living abroad (didnt express progressive aspect)
MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS
AUXILIARY / USES / PRESENT/FUTERE / PASTCAN / Ability/possibility / I can run fast. / I could run fast when Iwas achild, but now Icant.´
Infromal permission / Yous can use my car tomorrow.
Informal polite request / Can Iborrow your pen?
Impossibility(negative only) / That cant be true! / That cant have been true!
COULD / Past ability / I could run fast when Iwas child
Polite request / Could Iborrow your pen? Could you help me?
suggestion / I need help in math. You couldnt talk to your teacher. / You could have talked to your teacher.
Less than 50% certainly / Wheres John? He could be at home. / He could have been at home.
Impossibility(negative only) / That couldnt be true? / That couldnt have been true!
AUXILIARY / USES / PRESENT/FUTURE / PAST
BE ABLE TO / ability / I am able to help you. / I was able to help him
I will be able to help you.
MAY / Polite request / May Iborrow your pen?
Formal permission / You may leave the room.
Less than 50% certainly / Wheres John? He may be at the library. / He may have been at the library.
MIGHT / Less than 50% certainly / Wheres John? He might me at the library. / He might have been at the library.
Polite request (rare) / Might Iborrow your pen?
Strong necessity / I must go to class today. / I had to go to class yesterday.
MUST / Prohibition (negative) / You must not open that door.
strong necessity(rare) / i must go to class today. / I had to go to class yesterday.
95% certainly / Marry isnt in class. She must be sick (present only) / Mary must have been sick yesterday.
They may be cooking sth. They may be prepare breakfast.
What was you Brother doing yesterday?
-He may be travelling.
auxiliary / uses / present/futute / pasthave to / necessity / i have to go to class today. / i had to go to class yesterday
lack of necessity(negative) / i dont have to go to class today / .i didnt have to go to class yesterday
have got to / necessity / i have to got to go to class today. / i had to go to class yesterday
strong expectation / you are to be here at 9:00 / you were to be here at 9:00
be supposed to / expectation / class is supposed to begin at 10. / class was supposed begin at 10.
shall / polite question to make asuggestion / Shall iopen the window?
future with „l“ or „we“ as subject / i shall arrive at nine (will=more common)
should / advisability / i should study last night. / i should have studied last night.
90% certainty / she should do well on the test / she should have done well on the test.
AUXILIARY / USES / PERESENT/FUTURE / PAST
ought to / adivisability / I ought to study tonight. / I ought to have studied last night.
90% certainty / She ought to do well on the test(future only, not present) / She ouht to have done well on the test.
had better / dvisability with threat of bad result / You had better be on time, or we will leave without you. / (past form uncommon)
will / 100% certainty / He will be here at 6:00 (futute only)
willingness / the phone´s ringing. Iĺl get it.
polite request / Will you please pass the salt?
would / polite request / Would you please pass the salt? Woul you mind if ileft early
preference / I would rather go to the park than stay home.
repeated action in the past / When iwas achild iwould work my grandparents every weekend.
used to / repeated action / I used to visit my grandparents every weekend.
NEED, DARE
THE PASSIVE VOICE
WHAT IS VOICE?
Voice can be defined as the relationship between the subject of the verb and the action expressed by the verb;
- it is the form of the verb that shows whether the eubject of the verb does the action (the active voice) or whether the action is done to it (the passive voice).
-with regard to this, we differentiate between an active verb and passive verb.
Abrief charcteristics of an active verb and passive verb:
ACTIVE VERB- is in the active voice, the verb phrase can be expressed by the base form of th everb, the s-for or the –ed form. The subject of the active verb does the action.
PASSIVE VERB- is in he passive voice, the verb phrase consists of an auxiliary „be“ in present, past, future and other tenses. The subject of the passive verb receives the actions of the verb. The doer of the action is the object of the passive verb (i tis usually omitted.)
The distinction between active and passive applies only to sentences where the active verb is transitive, e.g. He reads abook.
Transitive verbs require an objects, more specifically adirect object, e.g. He bought some breead. Some bread eas bought by him.
Some verbs can take two objects and are referred to as ditransitive verbs, e.g. They bought her anice present. She was bought anice present. Anice present was bought to her.
Intransitive verbs do not take an object- they do not have passive structure, they are used in astructure Subject+ Verb, e.g. I tis raining or they are followed by an adverbial (S+V+Adv), e.g. The sun rises in the East. She left early.
Transitive verbs that are stative, i.e. they express astate rather than an action, cannot be made passive( apassive form is not possible), e.g.
to consist - The house consists of two bedrooms and akitchen.
to lack- Alice lacked confidence.
to like-Ilike this place.
to suit - This dress suits you.
Linking(sponové)/ intensive verbs and primary verb do, have, be cannot be used in the passive voice, e.g. She became adoctor. They remained friends. He has anew car.
there are passive verbs in English that do not have active voice equivalents, e.g. He was born in Brno.
Some active transitive verbs cannot be transormed to passive because such transformation would express nonsense, e.g. Some guests left the party early.
Ditransitive verbs- two objects. two passive structure, e.g. They sentme aletter. Iwas sent the letter. The letter was sent to me.
When do we use the passive voice?
The primary reason for using the passive is the change of focus within aclause, e.g. in an active sentence My uncle is building ahouse. We are talking primarily about the activity of my uncle.
in apassive sentence This house is being built by my uncle. We are talking primarily about the house, not my uncle.
The use of passive structures without „by phrase“
-unknown agent, e.g. His car has been stolen.
-generalized agent, e.g. Bike helmets are worn for safety reasons.
-obvious agent, e.g.Junk mail is delivered daily.
-unimportant agent, e.g. The film has been nominated for two Oscars.
-impersonal agent, e.g. It has been decided to reduce all salaries by 10%.
- Včera si dali vyčistiť okná – They´re had the Windows cleaned yesterday.
- budúci týždeň si dám vyvolať ten film. – Next week Iwill have that filmdeveloped
- ešte som si nedal ostrihať vlasy. – Ihaven´t had my hair cut yet.
- dali ste si opraviť auto? – Have you had your carrepaired?
- chystám sa dať si prekopírovať si tento materiál. –Iam going to have this matterial copied.
- zatiaľ som si nedal opraviť topánky.- Ihaven´t had my shoes repaired yet.
Definition
Noun is an open word cclass of lexical units that name aperson, place or thins ( or idea/ to account for abstract nouns.) Nouns are the names we give to people, things, places, etc. in order to identify them. Nouns and nou phrases answer the question Who? or What?
Subclassification of nouns
Non- Derived Nouns
-some words function only as nouns (desk, student)
-others function as nouns or verbs (work, call)
-others function as nouns an adjectives (cold) – we cannot indentify nouns only according their endings or suffixes.
Nouns and Verbs:
-the same spelling and pronunciatin : answer, change, dream, end, hope, offer, etc.
-the same spelling but different marking of stress : discount, entrance, export, object
- the stress on the first syllable- the word is anoun
-the stress in on the second syllable- the word is averb. The menaings are generally related.
Derived Nouns (odvodene)
-many nouns related to verbs or adjectives have characteristic suffixes that formally indicate that aword is anoun.
-Some common noun endings:
-people who do things: assistant, beggar, engineer, president, driver, etc.
-where people come from: Roman, Londoner, Milanese, etc.
-Ns derived from verbs: postage, arrival, acceptance, discovery, etc.
-nouns related to adjective: activity, happiness, etc.
-nouns derived from other nouns: kingdom, boyhood, etc
-nouns used to mean ´small´ : kitten, dolly, booklet, duckling, etc.
compound nouns(zložene)
-many nouns in –English are formed from two parts, or less commonly, three or more
-sometimes compunds are spelt with ahypen, sometimes not
-compounds are usually pronounced with the stress on the first syllable
-single-word compund nouns: some words are not considered as compounds, even though they consists of twoo words: acupboard, araincoat, asaucepan, the seaside
-Adjective + noun : agreenhouse, aheavyweight (a boxer)
-Gerund + nouns: drinking water, afrying pan, awalking stick
-noun+ gerund: horse riding, sight. seeing, sunbathing
-verb +adverb particle: breakdown, income, make-up
-noun + noun compounds:
-the express purpose: abookcase, acanopener, ameeting point, asheep-dog
-the names of material and substances: aotton blouse, agold watch
-compounds that classify types: ahoror film, aheadlamp, aseat belt, ataxi-driver
classification of nouns:
-formation: simple-compound, simple: derived-non-derived
-morphological description:
-countability: countable – uncountable nouns
-numbeer: singular – plural (both sg and pl, only sg, only pl)
-determination: determined- undetermined (specific. generic) reference
-gender: masculine, feminine, neuter
-case: common- possessive
-lexical descprition: proper- common; common: concrete-abstract
Morphological description of nouns
-an English noun has five morphological (grammatical) categories:
- number, countability, determination, gender, case
-within each grammatical category we can recognize an opposition:
- number: singular noun forms- plural noun forms
- countability: countable nouns – uncountable
- determination: determined nouns, undetermined
- gender: masculine gender, feminine, neuter
- case: common case, possesive
the inventory of the noun inflections:
number: inflection –s indicates that anoun is plural
countability: inflection –s indicates that anoun is conutable
determination: it has no over inflection, i tis recognized as agrammatical category for historical reasons
gender: suffixes –er (windower) –ess (lioness), -ine (heroine), -ette )usherette), - indicate the sex of aperson or an animal
case: inflection –s (precede by the apostrophe) indicates that anoun has the form of apossessive case.
number: agrammatical category that contrasts singular and plural
nouns typically have different singular and plural forms
many nouns fdo not have contrasting forms: they have fixed number; they are either singular –only sg or plural. only nouns
Nouns that have contrasting singular and plural forms- variable nouns
nouns with either singular or plural form (never with both forms)- invariable nouns.
Compound nouns- three ways of forming the plural: the last element is plural in:
noun + noun combinations: boyfriend, flower shops, matchoboxes
gerund + noun combinations: frying pans
no noun is present: breakdowns, forget-me-nots, growns-ups, lay-offs
compounds with anoun and preposition- the noun takes plural: onlookers( the last elemnt is plural)
lookers- on, passers- by( the first element is plural)
the first element is plural in some compounds: attorneys generak, courts-martial, men-of-war
both elements are plural:
-when the first element is aman or woman: men students, men-servants, women doctors
-BUT: man-eaters, woman-haters
-maid and lady keep their singular form: maid servants, lady writers
Invariable Nouns
nouns with fixed number- they occur in one form only.
Singular- only nouns( singular invariable nouns) – have no plural form
plural- only nouns( plural invariable nouns) have no singular form.
Singular- only nouns (nouns that are always followed by asingular verb form)
proper nouns that do not end in –s: London, John, Danube, etc. they take singular verb
COMPARE: the United States of America, the Philippines, etc. they tale plural verb.
uncountable nouns (no –s ending): progress, love, hate. they take singular verb
some nouns ending in – s :they look like plirals, but the final –s is not in fact aplural marker- they take singular verb form
news- what is the new today.
names of certain diseases: measles (kiahne), shingles (osýpky), mumps, egHave you ever had measles? Yes Ihad it/ them when Iwas achild.
names of some games: billiards, checkers, darts, dominoes.
nouns ending in- ics denoting subjwects, sciences, etc. are usually treated as singular: acoustics, athletics, classics, economics, ethics, phonetics.
Some nouns ending in- ics can be singular or plural, according to whether they denote: the subject, eg: Acoustic is very interesting to study. (as ascience)
the practical application of results: the acoustics of the hall were terrible./the way that tje sound is heard.
plural- only nouns / nouns always followed by aplural verb form)
binary nouns: names of tools, Instruments, articles of clothing consisting of two equal parts which are joined together. eg. glasses, scyales, scissors, jeans, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers.
these nouns contain the inflection –s but it cannot be dropped to form asingular, they take aplural verb, eg. These jeans are really nice. (BUT: This pair of jeans is really nice.)
number contrast can by expressed by jeans of apair of jeans, two pairs of jeans.
pluralia tantum nouns
aplurale tantum is anoun that appears only in plural form and does not have asingular variant though it may still refer to one or many of the objects it names.
in many cases, pluralia tantum nouns ending in –s also have aregular noun counterpart which has both singular and plural forms, and expresses the menaing that is different from the one expressed by plurale tantum, eg. the word minutes has two meanings:
acountable noun with both asingular form (1minute) and aplural form (5minutes)- in the meaning aperiod of time
aplurale tantum, i.e. only in the plural form, means an official written record of what is said and decided at ameeting (the minutes- zápisnica)
e.g. Where are the minutes of the last meeting?
some pluralia tantum nouns: glasses, goods, grounds, savings.
collective nouns- can be used with singular but also with plural forms of the verb.
police (The police have caught the burlar.)
cattle (All the cattle were grazing in the field.)
poultry( Where are your poultry?)