The Notebook
The purpose of this notebook is to help guide you through the introduction to philosophy course by fulfilling several functions:
1. It will provide an outline for the lecture material. This should help you keep the points of the lecture material organized and allow you to see if your notes are complete.
2. It contains interaction questions at the beginning of many sections to get you thinking about the topic coming up. These are highlighted with a bullet. Make sure you respond to them thoughtfully.
3. It will provide essay questions at the end of each section. The essay questions for the examinations will be drawn from these questions.
4. It provides reading assignments, and provides a general guide to show you where you should be in the textbooks to be current.
This notebook will be handed in at two points in the semester to be graded. Criteria for grading will be completeness/usability of the notes and depth of interaction with thought questions.
Why Bother?
Negative assessments of Philosophy
“Unintelligible answers to insoluble problems.” – Henry Adams
“A philosopher is a blind man in a dark room looking for a black cat that isn’t there.” – Lord Bowen
“A philosopher is one who contradicts other philosophers – William James
“Most of what one learns in college is quickly forgotten, but a little college philosophy is sufficient to screw up your entire life.” – Steve Martin
A more positive take on the enterprise
“Wonder rather than doubt is the root of knowledge.” - Heschel
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Getting the Lingo Down
· Reading - Palmer, pp. 5-28; 113-114; 252-256; Good Ideas, Introduction and ch. 1
Metaphysics (Ontological)
Epistemology
Ethics (Axiology)
Aesthetics
Logic
What type of statement is this? (Use categories listed at top of page for answers.)[Modified Biffle]
1. Absolute Truth cannot be known
2. Capital punishment is justified under certain circumstances.
3. We can know eternal truths because God illuminates them to our mind.
4. Hell exists.
5. I won’t believe it unless I see it.
6. Democracy is the best form of government.
7. All X is B, but not all B is X
8. One should always act in their own self interest.
9. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
More Lingo
Objective
Subjective
Rationalism
Empiricism
The Presocratics
The Beginning of Philosophy
1. Who are they?
2. How do we know of them?
3. What are they doing?
The transition from Mythos to Logos
1. Who creates it? [Culture/individuals]
2. Attitude toward the past? [Preservation (strong time/ no change)/questioning]
3. Description of the cosmos? [story/argument & 1st Principles]
4. Concept of origin?
Thales – Materialistic Monism
Problem: The One and the Many
Solution: Materialistic Monism (however)
All is water. Why?
[Behind appearances/Unity behind multiplicity/Simplicity]
Everything is permeated by spirits (gods). Why?
[Explaining change – Matter is inert/stupid]
Test questions:
Why does Thales argue that everything is water?
Why is Thales’ attempt to solve the problem of the One and the Many better defined as philosophical than mythological?
Anaximander
· Is change random, linear (moving toward a goal), or cyclical? Use examples to explain your answer.
Thales’ Oversight
Anaximander’s Solution: The “Boundless”
Reality as Cyclical
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Cosmic Justice
Test Question:
Why does Anaximander argue that water cannot be the final explanation of all things, and that something more basic is required to explain things? What does Anaximander see as the most basic reality?
Pythagoreans – Metaphysical Pluralism
· Explain how either a building or music (your choice) can be reduced to numbers.
Numbers as the Basic Reality – Why?
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Goal: To find a harmony of tensions and order in the unchangeable
Test question:
Why do the Pythagorians argue that numbers are the most basic element of reality?
Heraclitus – Process Monism
· Heraclitus is famous for his statement that “one cannot step into the same river twice.” What do you think he means?
· Does this statement apply to things other than rivers? Is it impossible to look at the same picture twice or hear the same song more than once?
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· [from Biffle]
Change as real – Fire as the analogy
Change as real – Movement Toward Opposite/Peace in Proper Tension
Change as Directed – The Logos
Test Question:
How does Heraclitus use the concept of the Logos to solve the problem of the One and the Many?
In the philosophy of Heraclitus, what changes, what remains constant, and what is the relationship between constancy and change?
Eleatics – Radical Metaphysical Monism
Logic versus Perception
· What reasons can you give for putting more faith in our powers of logic and reason than in our perceptions?
Basic Metaphysical Principle – “What is, is. What is not, is not.”
1. Nothing does not exist.
2. Nothing cannot become something.
3. No Empty Spaces
4. Movement is impossible
“Unfortunately, we do not have access to the entirety of Zeno’s philosophy. Before he could tell us the whole of his philosophy, he had to tell us the first half. But of course, before he could do this .” (Bluffer’s Guide to Philosophy)
Test questions:
What do the Eleatics mean by the statement, “What is, is. What is not, is not?”
Why do the Eleatics argue that movement is impossible?
Atomists – Pluralistic Materialism
“By convention are sweet and bitter, hot and cold, by convention is color; in truth are atoms and the void.” (Democritus)
· Assuming that you have never seen an atom, why would you believe that all physical things are comprised of atoms?
Combining Heraclitus and the Eleatics
Permanence
Change
Materialism
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New Problems
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Test question:
What, according to the Atomists, explains the great variety of things in the world?
What are the various characteristics of atoms, according to the Atomists?
The Stoics – Metaphysical Monism
“Remember that you are an actor in a play, the character of which is determined by the Playwright: if He wishes the play to be short, it is short; if long, it is long; if He wishes you to play the part of a beggar, remember to act even this role adroitly; and so if your role be that of a cripple, an official, or a layman. For this is your business, to play admirably the role assigned you; but the selection of that role is Another’s.” – Epictetus
· A lot of things have to come together in order for human life to be sustained. (1) Identify five things that must be as they are for us to live and briefly explain how they interact. (2) What makes these different things work together so well?
The Logos
1. In the world
2. In us
3. Thus must be the same
Determinism as the outgrowth of the perfect Logos
Apathia & Ethics
· Why do most people have such a negative reaction to the idea that all things are determined?
Test questions:
In order to be happy, the Stoics argue that we need to make one crucial distinction. What is it? And how does making this distinction benefit us?
What does determinism mean and why do the Stoics believe in it?
The Sophists – Epistemological Subjectivism
“Man is the measure of all things.” – Protagoras
· Why is there no unanimous agreement on some of the most important and basic questions in life, such as the morality of abortion, the existence of God, or what constitutes good art?
The indisputability of perception
The defensibility of opposites
The role of rhetoric
Arete and Pragmatism
Two different directions
1. Protagoras
2. Callicles
· Are there absolute truths? If not, what are problems that arise with defending your answer? If so, what are they and how do you know?
Test question:
Why do the Sophists believe that, “man is the measure of all things?”
How do Protagoras and Callicles differ in their understanding of the implications of “man is the measure?”
Test questions from Palmer:
What are the differences between mythos and logos?
What is meant by first-order and second-order questions? Give an example of each.
How does Thrasymachus understand morality?
Socrates
“The unexamined life is not worth living.” – Socrates
“The unlived life is not worth examining.” – Steve
· Reading from Palmer - pp. 28-51; 256-260; 329-334; Good Ideas, chapter 2-3
· What was the tallest mountain on earth before Mount Everest was discovered?
· Think of someone considered a dissident. How do you feel about this person? Why?
The historical context:
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Asking questions:
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The problem with questions:
The Trial of Socrates – In Three Acts
Before the Trial – Euthyphro
Background:
Getting at Piety:
Mistake #1:
Mistake #2:
Mistake #3:
Mistake #4
Mistake #5
The Trial
The Charges
The Refutation
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The Sentence
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After the Trial
1. Crito’s Plea – Reasons to leave
2. Socrates’ Response – Reasons to stay
Test Questions from Palmer:
What is the normal pattern of the socratic dialog?
Test Questions:
Why does Socrates ask so many questions? Relate this to his characterization of himself as a midwife and his concern for truth.
Why does Socrates look for definitions rather than examples in his quest for truth?
Why does Socrates agree with the Oracle’s claim that there is no one wiser than he? What does this tell us about his definition of wisdom?
Why does Socrates argue that it would be wrong for him to avoid his punishment by escape?
Plato
“When I do not know what something essentially is, how can I know what its properties are? How, if I knew nothing at all of Meno, could I tell if he was fair or the opposite of fair; rich and noble, or the reverse of rich and noble?” (Plato, Meno)
“If a man does away with Forms of things and will not admit that every individual thing has its own determinate Form which is always one and the same, he will have nothing on which his mind can rest; and so he will utterly destroy the power of reasoning.” (Plato, Parmenides)
Dualism
1. The Body
2. The Soul
Two Worlds
1. Physical World
2. World of Forms
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The Hierarchy of the Forms
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Observations
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Epistemology
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The Divided Line – Put Your Nifty Picture Below
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What A is to B, AB is to CD
The Allegory of the Cave – (Room for another spiffy picture below + explanatory narrative)
The Soul and its Functions (and related virtues)
1. Appetites
2. Spirit
3. Reason
Ethics – The Charioteer
1. Summary of the Story
2. The Ethical Problem
3. Justice
Politics
1. Craftsmen
2. Auxiliaries
3. Rulers
4. The Just State
· You hear someone say, “all this stuff about justice is a bunch of hot air. Justice is simply a matter of law, and laws reflect the ideas of those in power. Nothing is good in itself.” How would Plato respond?
Test Questions:
Draw Plato’s divided line, label each section, and explain what each section symbolizes.
How does Plato explain evil?
Who should rule in a good state, according to Plato? Why?
What are the functions and virtues of the individual soul? How does this correspond to the structure and virtue of a good State?
Why does Plato believe the Forms exist?
What are the characteristics of the Forms?
Outline the basic elements of Plato’s allegory of the cave and explain what points he was trying to communicate in this story.
Test questions from Palmer:
How would Plato distinguish between knowledge and opinion?
What is “Meno’s Paradox” and what was Plato attempting to demonstrate with it?
Describe the lifestyle and preparation of the Guardians?
What is the “Noble Lie” and what is its purpose?
Test questions from Wilkens (chapters 1-3):
Socrates does not like the idea that knowledge is perception/man is the measure. What are his problems with this view of truth?
What is Socrates view of the person and how does this shape his understanding of the afterlife? Where does Wilkens say this might be in tension with a Christian view?
Aristotle
“The human good turns out to be activity of the soul in conformity with excellence, and if there are more than one excellence, in conformity with the best and most complete. But we must add ‘in a complete life’. For one swallow does not make a summer, not does one day; and so too one day, or a short time, does not make a man blessed and happy.” (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics)
· Reading from Palmer - pp. 76-79; Good Ideas, chapter 4
Agreement with Plato
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Departure from Plato – Metaphysical
The Problem: Change
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Solution: Informed Matter
One World
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Whatness/Substance/Forms
Thisness/Accidents/Matter
Potential:
Actuality:
The Four Causes
a. Material Cause
b. Efficient Cause
c. Formal Cause
d. Final Cause
Departure from Plato II – Epistemology
A posteriori
The role of observation
Classification
Connect the dots
Cause and effect
Departure from Plato III – The Soul
Life itself + Optional equipment
Three types of Souls
1. Vegetative
2. Animal
3. Rational
Soul uses matter to reach telos
Highest should rule
Not immortal
Departure from Plato IV – Ethics
Happiness – An end in itself
Here is the proper definition of happiness:
What is needed for happiness
Virtue
The Golden Mean
Virtue vs Continence
Understanding virtue
Happiness and the Highest
Test questions:
What does Aristotle mean by essence?
How does Aristotle understand God?
What are the three kinds of soul, according to Aristotle, and what are the attributes of these three types of soul?