SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 1

COST TO BENEFITS

One impetus for the Rialto Police Department to conduct this study was to save money on the litigation costs and expenses associated with incidents of use-of-force and complaints. Both justified and frivolous complaints against the police cost a great deal of money in terms of both in and out-of-court settlements. Investigating these incidents is also resource-intensive, not to mention the social and moral costs of the use-of-force. For instance, it was recently reported that the UK Metropolitan Police have spent £9M in six years in compensation to settle 915 complaints over police actions (BBC, 11 May 2012) – or about £10,000 per complaint. In Minneapolis, complaints investigated by the Internal Affairs Division cost an average of $6,278; in Berkeley, California about $8,571 per case and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, roughly $872 per case (Minneapolis Civilian Review Authority 1997; Walker, Archbold and Herbst 2002). Unadjusted for inflation, these sums are still quite substantial, not least when they are substantiated and suggest unnecessary or excessive use of police power. To these sums, one should also add oversight costs, which at least according to some estimates from nine jurisdictions (Finn 2001)amount to $1,908 for each complaint (filed and investigated). Very crudely, and disregarding accounting mistakes, this suggests to us that the direct costs of citizens’ complaints is roughly in the area of $20,000 per complaint. Therefore, Rialto Police Department “saved” direct costs of 21 complaints (the difference between before and after the experiment), or about $400,000. To put these figures in perspective, the total cost for Rialto Police Department of the cameras was a little over $90,000. These direct costs included 70 complete video camera units and mounts (including spares), charging/docking stations, the video management and data upload and tracking system, along with training for the trainers/technicians and each officer. This suggests that the direct benefit to cost ratio is approximately $4 saved for every $1 spent on the cameras. Furthermore, if citizens’ complaints are reliable proxies of use-of-force, then a high number of complaints can also be a proxy of potential hazards to already delicate relations between the police and the community. Costing these reputational and relational prices seems to go beyond the scope of this paper, but one can see the greater benefits.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 2

USE-OF-FORCE OFFICIAL USE-OF-FORCE CASES

1. UOF2012-007 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a domestic violence call. When the officer arrived on the scene, he contacted a male subject who was extremely agitated and intoxicated. At one point during the contact, the subject took a fighting stance against the officer, threatening to fight him if he took his kids away or tied to arrest him (The subject basically clenched his fists, took a boxer type stance, and threatened to injure officer). The officer tried to gain verbal compliance which met with negative results. For safety reasons, the officer attempted to search the subject at which time the subject attempted to strike the officer. The subject was tased and taken into custody. The arrest was for: Resisting / Obstruction (PC 148 - Misdemeanor) and Threats against a Police Officer (PC 422 -Felony). Citizen Initiated

2. UOF2012-003 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a domestic violence call. When the officer arrived on scene, he contacted a male subject who was agitated and intoxicated. During the contact, the subject was yelling and cursing at the officer, and at one point reached into his pants pocket. The officer fearing the suspect was reaching for a weapon, told the suspect to remove his hand. The subject refused at which time the officer grabbed the subject’s wrist and the subject struck the officer. The officer forced the subject to the ground and he was taken into custody. The arrest was for: Resisting / Obstruction (PC 148 -Misdemeanor). Officer Initiated

3. UOF2012-009 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a suspicious person(s) call at a local mini-market. When the officer arrived on scene he observed one of the subjects exiting the store. The officer contacted the subject who was uncooperative - refusing to stop and walking away. The officer ordered the suspect to stop and the subject again refused. The subject cursed at the officer telling the officer that he “was not going to do shit about it.” The officer then placed his hand on the subject’s arms and sat him on the curb. As the officer did this, the subject struck the officer. The subject was forced to the ground and taken into custody. The arrest was for: Resisting /Obstruction (PC 148 - Misdemeanor), and Threats against a Police Officer (PC 422 - Felony). Citizen Initiated

4. UOF2012-008 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a suspicious vehicle call. The officer located the vehicle occupied by a female subject was passed out behind the wheel of the vehicle. There was also a male subject who was passed out in the passenger seat. Fearing the two needed medical attention or perhaps they were intoxicated, the officer opened the vehicle’s door at which time the officer could smell the strong odor of alcohol and urine.

The officer successfully woke up the female and she was detained for public intoxication. When the officers woke up the male, he refused to exit the car. The subject was cursing at the officer and at one point the officer tried to forcibly pull the subject from the car. The subject finally exited the car. The officers attempted to place the subject into custody however he resisted by refusing to obey the officers commands and pulling away from the officers as they attempted to handcuff him. The subject was subsequently tased and taken into custody. The arrest was for: Public Intoxication (PC 647 f – Misdemeanor) and Resisting/ Obstruction (PC 148 - Misdemeanor). Officer Initiated

5. UOF2012-012 (Control Conditions)
While on patrol the officers attempted to stop a vehicle for several violations however, the vehicle failed to stop and a vehicle pursuit ensued. The vehicle subsequently stopped in the driveway of a residence and the driver exited; stumbling as he attempted to run from the officer. The officer chased the subject and was able to grab the subjects arm. The subject pulled away and as the officer was attempting to gain control, the subject struck the officer in the chest. The subject began to fight with the officer so the officer pushed the subject away and drew his taser. The subject refused to comply and be taken into custody, so he was tased. The arrest was for: Driving under the Influence (CVC 23152 – Misdemeanor) and Resisting /Obstruction (PC 148 – Misdemeanor). Citizen Initiated

6. UOF2012-013 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a suspicious person call. The officer located and contacted the subject who refused to comply with the officer’s investigation and became very agitated. At one point during the contact, the officer felt the subject was becoming too aggressive so he pulled out his taser to defuse the aggression. As one officer attempted to detain the subject, the subject pulled away and became combative. The subject was forced to the ground and continued to resist the officers. The subject was tased which had no result and he continued to fight. The subject was subsequently taken into custody. The subject was found to be under the influence of alcohol and marijuana. The arrest was for: Obstructing/Resisting (PC 148 – Misdemeanor) and Threats against a Police Officer (PC 422 - Felony). Citizen Initiated

7. UOF2012-018 (Experimental Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a domestic dispute call. When the officer arrived on scene he contacted two males and one female who were arguing in the front yard. As the officer approached, one of the male subjects kicked the other in the stomach and pulled out a knife. The male then attempted to stab the other male. The officer tased the male with the knife and he was taken into custody. The arrest was for: Assault with a Deadly Weapon (PC 245 - Felony). Officer Initiated

8. UOF2012-015 (Control Conditions)

During a narcotics investigation the officer contacted a male subject. During a consensual pat-search of the subject the officer felt a hard object in the subject’s pocket – to which the subject told the officer it was a “weed pipe.” The officer also felt what he thought was a plastic baggie (a common way to carry narcotics etc). When the officer removed the hard object and baggie he saw it contained methamphetamine. The subject then pulled away from the officer and ran. The officer chased the subject and pulled him to the ground. The subject was taken into custody. The arrest was for: Possession of Methamphetamine (11377 HS - Felony). Citizen Initiated

9. UOF2012-022 (Experimental Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a domestic violence call. When the officers arrived on scene he contacted a female who told them her husband was intoxicated and suicidal. The officers were told the male subject was armed with “tools” and “weapons” in the house, and had also made threats about shooting the wife and the police should they come to the house. The officers attempted to have the male exit the residence however, he refused. The officers gained entry into the house and the male was hiding in the hallway. The officers attempted to get the male to surrender and he again refused. The male then attempted to run and was tased by the officer. The male was taken into custody. The arrest was for: Criminal Threats (PC 422 - Felony). Citizen Initiated

10. UOF2012-023 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a call of subjects drinking in the park. When the officer arrived on scene he located two subjects sitting on a bench. The male subjects were drinking and they exhibited symptoms of intoxication. The officer also noticed broken bottles on the ground. The office determined that the subjects were intoxicated in public and took the first subject into custody. As the officer handcuffed the first subject, the second subject became irate and began cursing. The subject began yelling slurs at the officer and clenched his fists. The subject then challenged the officer to try and arrest him. At this point the officer felt the subject was going to assault her so she grabbed the subject by the arm. The subject pulled away however, the officer was able to gain control and handcuff the subject. The subject was also found to be in possession of a dagger. The arrest was for: Public Intoxication (PC 647 f – Misdemeanor), Possession of a Dangerous Weapon (PC 12020 – Felony), and Resist / Obstruct (PC 148 - Misdemeanor). Citizen Initiated

11. UOF2012-024 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to an unknown problem call (the night before a witness heard two gunshots and saw a male holding a handgun sitting in a white Lexus). Today’s call was from the same witness who saw the same subject at the location and wanted an officer to investigate.

When the officer arrived on scene he located the male subject in the vehicle described by the witness. The officer searched the car and no weapon was found. During the investigation the subject gave false information regarding his identity. A warrant check also showed outstanding warrants for his arrest to include burglary. Once the subject heard the warrant information on the officer’s radio, he ran from the officers and into an apartment. The subject subsequently came out of the apartment and ran directly at the officers. The officer’s not sure if the subject was going to attack them or run past them tased the subject and he was taken into custody. The arrest was for: Felony Warrants and Resisting/Obstructing (PC 148 - Misdemeanor). Citizen Initiated

12. UOF2012-025 (Experimental Conditions)

While investigating a possible parolee at large the officer contacted a male subject. During the contact the officers felt the subject gave false information to conceal his identity and evade arrest. The subject was asked to sit on the curb to which he complied. When the officer attempted to use a portable finger-print device to obtain the subjects real identity, the subject became nervous and began yelling he was under a lot of stress. The subject then attempted to stand up and was ordered by the officers to sit. The officers attempted to handcuff the subject however, he resisted. The officers told the subject he would be tased however, the subject said, “go ahead and tase me” and continues to resist. The subject continues to resist and he was tased which was only partially effective. The subject continues to fight and was subsequently taken into custody. The arrest was for: Parole Violation (PC 3056 – Felony) and Resisting / Obstruction (PC 148 – Misdemeanor). Citizen Initiated

13. UOF2012-028 (Experimental Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a domestic disturbance call. When the officer arrived on scene he contacted the male subject. The subject was inside his residence looking out of a metal security screen door. The officer advised the subject to open the door to which he refused. The officer’s could also hear a female inside the location screaming for the subject to open the door. The officers fearing for the female’s safety forced entry. The officers gave multiple commands for the subject to “show” his hands and get on the ground, however he refused. As the officer approached the subject he took a fighting stance, waving his arms about. One officer grabbed the subject’s shirt at which time the subject punched the officer in the face. The subject fought with the officers and was subsequently tased and taken into custody. The subject was found to have held his wife against her will. The arrest was for: False Imprisonment (PC 236 – Felony), Assault on an Officer (PC 243 – Felony), and Resisting/Obstructing (PC 148 - Misdemeanor). Citizen Initiated

14. OUF2012-031 (Experimental Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to call of a stolen vehicle. The officer located the vehicle which was being driven by a male subject. The officer stopped the vehicle and the subject first refused to exit. The officers approached the vehicle and the subject exited. The suspect refused to comply with the officers and ran through several yards. As the subject ran, he discarded something over one of the fences. Once the officers were able to catch up with the suspect he attempted to jump over another fence, when he was tased and taken into custody. The arrest was for: Vehicle Theft (CVC 10851 – Felony) and Possession of Stolen Property (PC 496 – Felony). Citizen Initiated

15. UOF2012-035 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a call of a subject loitering in the park. The officer located the male subject matching the description. When the officer tried to contact the subject he refused to comply. During the investigation the subject suddenly said to the officer, “I am going to kill you.” The subject then swung to hit the officer in the head with his fist and began to run away. The officer grabbed the subject’s shirt and told the subject to stop running and resisting. The officer then pushed the subject to the ground and he was taken into custody. The arrest was for: Resisting / Obstruction (PC 148 – Misdemeanor) and Threats against a Police Officer (PC 422 - Felony). Citizen Initiated

16. UOF2012-038 (Control Conditions)

The officer was dispatched to a disturbance call (subjects yelling and possible fight). When the officer arrived he located and contacted a group of subjects. One of the subjects was yelling cursing, and when the officer got close, he noticed symptoms of alcohol intoxication. During the investigation, this same subject attempted to fight with another person there, however, the officer intervened by grabbing his arm. The subject then pulled away and the offer held on. The subject then attempted to strike the officer at which time he was forced to the ground and taken into custody. The arrest was for: Resisting / Obstruction (PC 148 – Misdemeanor) and Public Intoxication (PC 647 f - Misdemeanor). Officer Initiated

17. UOF2012-041 (Control Conditions)

While investigating the call of a fight at a restaurant the officer located two subjects fighting. The officer attempted to gain verbal compliance which met with negative results. One of the subjects then struck the other in the face which appeared to cause significant injury. Fearing the violence to escalate or further injury would result if left to continue, the officer tased the aggressor and both subjects were detained. Both subjects were determined to be extremely intoxicated and were taken into custody. The arrest was for: Resisting / Obstruction (PC 148 – Misdemeanor) and Public intoxication (PC 647 f – Misdemeanor). Officer Initiated