PRIMARY TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF SMALL RURAL SCHOOLS
Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Lisbon, 11-14 September 2002
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Matti Meriläinen
University of Joensuu
Faculty of Education
P.O. Bo x 111
FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
Tel No 358-13-251 2035
Fax No 358-13-251 2050
Janne Pietarinen
University of Joensuu
Faculty of Education
P.O. Box 111
FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
Tel No 358-13-251 2340
Fax No 358-13-251 4528
1
Abstract
The primary objective of this study is to retrospectively reconstruct the career path of primary teachers’ professional development (Huberman 1992). Special attention is paid to factors related to professional development, such as critical events or turning points in the course of one’s career. The subjective views of teachers regarding their professional self are construed and categorized with the use of Kelchtermans´s (1993) interpretational framework of the professional self. A teacher’s experiences are related to the physical and institutional context of one’s own school or work community, which has its own special characteristics (Kalaoja & Pietarinen 2001). In a larger sense, contextuality is related to that connection which forms between the social, cultural and inner world of experience of the teacher. In previous studies, it has been noted that teachers in rural schools do not consider themselves to be equal in terms of professional respect compared with their colleagues in towns or parish villages. The size and the location of the school has also been found to be connected with an overall willingness to develop professionally (Meriläinen 1999). A second objective of this study was to understand the choices made by a teacher in her/his different career stages and the significance of these choices to his/her professional development. At which stage of one’s career does the teacher possibly choose an active or a passive career path and what are those critical (internal and external) factors within the context of a small school that guide this teacher’s choice? The target group of this case study consisted of the neighbouring municipalities of Joensuu in the area of North Karelia. The case schools studied (9) were all rural schools with 1-3 teachers. At least one of the teachers had to be experienced with a minimum of 19 years of teaching experience. This study exploited a method typical of narrative research with retrospective drawing and writing tasks, after which further data will be compiled by in-depth interviews in order to construct the professional self and to interpret the factors related to choices made in the past – present – future dimension. The preliminary results are based on the teachers’ life-stories and on the tentatively construed factors affecting their career choices (active – passive).
Keywords: primary teacher, professional development, professional career, stage theory approach, small rural school
Introduction
The importance of the teachers’ professional development has been justifiably emphasised in educational discourse. Schools are not “faceless” organisations – on the contrary –the working conditions and the whole school culture of every school is shaped by teachers (and pupils), personal, interpersonal, contextual, and situational factors that change over time. (see Olson & Craig 2001). In addition, it is known that, to order to realise, teachers’ professional development demands favourable conditions, and even so that these favourable conditions support professional development in the various stages of teachers’ careers (Meriläinen 1999). Clement and Vandenberghe (2000) approach these favourable conditions for teachers’ professional development by analysing the tension between autonomy and collegiality in teacher community. This tension takes shape at the level of school organisation and a “good” organisational tension between autonomy and collegiality creates professional challenges for the teachers and, at the same time, guarantee the freedom to keep this learning firmly in the teacher’s own hands which is a crucial part of a well designed collegiality.
Nowadays, teacher communities have been challenged to search the balance between autonomy and collegiality. The size of the teacher community and teachers’ stage of their professional career are those contextual factors which shape the interactive culture of teacher community (see Huusko 1999; Kosunen & Huusko 2002) and establish the foundation for teachers´ professional development at the school level (Meriläinen 1999). If we want more detailed knowledge concerning the relationship between contextual factors and teachers’ professional development, we have to study teachers’ professional development in various school contexts that are closely described and defined. In this study, we approach the teacher’s professional development and career from the small rural school’s point of view, which is in many ways a unique school context. Traditionally, a small rural school has been defined – in the Finnish educational context – as a school that operates in a rural district and that has 1-3 permanent teachers and teaching groups (Laukkanen et al. 1986, 9; Yrjönsuuri 1990, 1; Kalaoja 1990, 7). During the 1990s the Finnish school network has been greatly thinned out in rural areas while it has been thickened in urban areas. Yet, in 1999 over 50% of primary schools were small schools with 1-3 permanent teachers and teaching groups. Most of these schools were located in sparsely populated areas. Almost 20 per cent of each age group studied in these rural schools (with less than 100 pupils). (National Board of Education 2001, 18-19.)
On the basis of this fairly administrative definition we can analyse in a more detailed way the characteristics of the small rural school. The interaction patterns within a small teaching staff, the pedagogical challenges offered by mixed-aged class teaching, the location of the school and the interaction between the school and the village community define the teachers’ working conditions and the cultural specificity of the school. (Kalaoja & Pietarinen 2001.) These characteristics can have a positive as well as a negative influence on the teachers’ professional development. If teachers have found the balance between autonomy and collegiality in their teacher community, the functional individuality of each school enables them to carry out successful schoolwork in their own working community and home municipality (Hämäläinen & Leppilampi 1990; Kosunen &Huusko 2002). On the other hand, there is a risk that rural teachers are subject to social and professional isolation (McEvan 1999). Kalaoja and Pietarinen (2001) reviewed the Finnish studies related to small schools and they concluded that small school teachers are in many ways satisfied with their work but there is a risk that these teachers “live unconsciously alone on the small “island“ without support for their professional development. In a way, expectations of the small rural school teachers’ professionalism and qualifications differ from those of their colleagues in urban areas. In addition, nowadays the small school teacher is assumed to “fight against continuing threat of school closures“. The closure of a school is a significant loss for the community around the school (Witten et al. 2001) and it might be a watershed in a teachers’ professional career. Further, because of the lack of a large teacher community there is a risk that “goodness of small rural school is evaluated as a synonym of the goodness of the teacher”. In sum, the working environment the small school and the small teacher community can further or hinder an individual teacher’s professional development.
Teachers’ professional development
Why is it so important to be interested in teachers’ professional development? As Craft (1996, 5) has written, traditionally both in-service training and a need for professional development have often been taken as a matter of voluntary commitment or seen as appropriate for those with career ambitions. This kind of attitude is no longer appropriate because of the pressures, at national and school levels, arising from the demands for increased quality, and also because of the impact of competition of students and national allocation of resources. Therefore we have to pay attention to teachers’ needs to develop themselves professionally. This is an advantage for teachers but also an advantage for schools and, especially, an advantage for pupils and students. We must not forget the most important - but unfortunately often forgotten - reason for professional development: the aim of better teaching and better learning outcomes. That is the privilege and the right of every pupil.
Craft (1996, 5) also writes: “On the other hand, there are the individual needs of teachers’ who may see in-service learning in terms of job satisfaction and personal or professional growth. In effect, responding to external calls for greater accountability has to be reconciled with the developmental needs of individual teachers, who may to wish to act as far as possible as autonomous professionals.” Teachers’ abilities, individual needs and especially teachers’ willingness to change may be the most remarkable clue to school improvement and innovation within the classroom (Calderhead 1992, 13).
Studies concerning the development of the teacher do not follow any precise grouping but it is usual to classify or review them according the emphasis of individual or work community paradigm (Niemi 1995). Ten years ago Calderhead (1992, 3–10) overviewed the theoretical research perspectives of the teachers’ professional development as follows:
-Socialisation into the professional culture
-The development of knowledge and skills
-The moral dimension of teaching
-The personal dimension of teaching
-The reflective dimension
Calderhead (1992) observes teachers’ work and professional development from the point of practice, teaching whereas Niemi (1995) approaches teachers’ professional development from the point of learning to be a better teacher. Despite several approaches or points of view, we have to remember in particular that it is hardly possible to compartmentalise professional development into certain pieces or areas. Teachers’ development is an individual undulated whole that differs from teacher to another. Nevertheless, it is possible to piece together individual experiences of teacher development, and also to theorise factors or variables that influence in general teachers developmental attempts and improvement in the various career or developmental stages (Huberman 1992). Disclosing these factors or variables would be the way – at least partly – to explain teachers’ developmental transition from stage to another.
Why is it important to promote teachers’ professional development? Why to do it?
It is typical of studies concerning teachers’ professional development that the researcher concentrates on estimating the development in a certain area or dimension needed in the teacher’s profession (Pickle 1985), the development of skills (Berliner 1988, 1992), or, for example, the development of content knowledge (Schulman 1987). Lately researchers have focused on what the teachers do and how they manage to handle their feelings connected with improvement processes (Bell & Gilbert 1994, 493-496; see also Day & Leitch 2001).
The aim of attending improvement can be, for example, that one improves him/herself in a certain subject or within a certain field of knowledge (base). Nevertheless, it seems that the improvement in a subject increases also the teacher’s self-confidence. At the same time, the improved ability in the taught subject and possibly the experience gained from the practice offer the teacher freedom/resources for a close consideration of further methods. Self-confidence and appropriate variety of teaching methods can further develop interaction between the teacher and pupils and consequently improve learning results. The significance of professional development of individual teacher may also be seen in the development of work community, if organisational circumstances are favourable (Meriläinen 1999.)
It would be more important to approach the benefits of the professional development from a more far-extending point of view. In general there are several reasons for developmental efforts of teachers’ (Craft 1996, 6, see also Middlewood 1997, 187):
-to improve the job performance skills of the whole staff or groups of staff
-to improve the job performance skills of an individual teacher
-to extend the experience of an individual teacher to career development or promotion purposes
-to develop the professional knowledge and understanding of an individual teacher
-to extend the personal or general education of an individual
-to make staff feel valued
-to promote job satisfaction
-to develop an enhanced view of the job
-to enable teachers to anticipate and prepare for change
-to clarify the whole school or department policy
There are several different possibilities to approach the phenomena of teachers’ professional development. One of these is cited by Hargreaves and Fullan 1992 (Garrett & Bowles 1997, 28-32). Those three different approaches to “training or improving the teaching force” are:
-Teacher development as knowledge and skills development, where teachers are equipped “with the necessary knowledge and skills to provide pupils improved opportunities to learn”.
-Teacher development as self-understanding, where the focus is upon the teacher as a person.
-Teacher development as ecological change, which highlights the importance of the context of the working environment.
The importance of the context of the working environment can be seen as a question of resources, colleagues’ attitude toward developmental ambitions or the standard of leadership (Garrett & Bowles 1997, 31).
Is has been noticed the fact that teachers who are uncommitted to their work community are not motivated at all to apply their training (INSET), but they are expecting to be of benefit in their practical work in the future. The divergence between the developmental intentions of the work communities and individuals and the fact that in-service training lacks planning are important factors in the continuity of the professional development of the primary teachers and in the influence the training has on their practical school work. (Meriläinen 1999.)
How do schools organise and facilitate professional development and learning?
Even thought one of the most important aspects of managing professional learning is the choice of appropriate techniques to facilitate and support learning it seems that unless there is a high correlation between a number of variables, the possibility of learning and development taking place is significantly diminished (West-Burnham 1998, 65).
We have to ensure - or actually it is a prerequisite for teachers’ continuing professional development (CPD) - that all aspects of professional development contribute to a meaningful whole both for the individual and the school. Both the developmental aims of schools as organisations and the developmental aims of individual teachers have to be directed to the same direction.
As Garrett and Bowles (1997, 32) have put it, appraisal is one mechanism we have at hand, but before appraisal we need persevering planning based on the needs of teachers and schools, and perhaps in the future planning based on the need of several schools or school levels in a certain region.
The development plan of a school has to be based on these different kind of developmental aims, and it has to cover, in one way or other, the different kind of developmental needs and possibilities (Meriläinen 1999). A development plan – just like appraisal – should be integrated with the other annual management processes and information systems directed at school improvement. Planning should be based on systematic evaluation (appraisal) that should address more consistently and systematically how well teachers are performing their essential tasks and what would be required to assist their professional development (Garrett & Bowles 1997, 32). For example through negotiation by work community and leaders it is possible to evaluate teachers’ developmental needs and possibilities (Law 1997, 59-63). When we are evaluating developmental possibilities on the school level we should think about creating the learning organisation and creating structures that support the development of individual teachers but also the development of school as a collegial work community (Lumby 1997). That is why we need knowledge of variables influencing professional learning and development (see Figure 1.).
Figure 1. The variables influencing professional learning (John West-Burnham 1998, 65).
Variables shown in figure 1 can be elucidated as follows:
Learner: the individual in terms of her or his: experience, motivation, learning style, perceived needs, role, development strategy (West-Burnham 1998, 88-106; see also Oldroyd and Hall 1997, Middlewood 1997).
Activity: the type of professional learning technique that is available and appropriate (see also Craft 1996, 7)
Resources: using the term in its broadest sense i.e.: time, colleagues, expertise, and finance
School improvement strategy: individual development programmes will only be organisationally meaningful if they are produced in the context of an explicit, known, shared, understood and accepted whole-school strategy (see also Law 1997, 61).
After exploring the nature of those factors and variables we are able to choose the most appropriate methods from a range of techniques, activities and strategies which are appropriate to the developmental model of professional learning of each school (Craft 1996, West-Burnham 1998).
In this paper we concentrate on the school level and on the external factors of small rural schools that may influence teachers eagerness of personal professional development. We do not try and it is not sensible to evaluate what kind of methods are the most suitable for improving teachers´ professional development in small rural schools. For example in a region of several small schools of 2-3 teachers network is maybe the one and only workable solution to ensure the fulfilment of the needs of different levels referred to above.
Teacher’s career with different developmental paths
When is the right time for teachers to think about their professional abilities and need for professional developmental (intentions or aims)? When examining the professional development of primary teachers it is necessary to take into account not only the development of one’s work but also the different professional developmental needs of teachers in different stages of their careers. The concept of career has sometimes been defined simply as progress, but according to this concept those professions which offer no opportunities for progress are left outside this definition. This study examines the work of a primary teacher as a career, which is experienced subjectively as a series of work tasks which one experiences during one’s working life, regardless of the level of the profession or work (Hall & Goodale 1986, 362). The developmental stages of a professional career have been bound to different theories related to, for example, professional expertise or interaction between people. A career has also been examined as cyclic or a completely subjective experience (Kelchtermans 1993, Ovens 1999, 301).
Theories on professional expertise distinguish between the stages of research, experimentation, stabilisation, progress, maintenance and disengagement from the career in the development process. Growth, maintenance or paralysis, in which case the professional performance deteriorates, have been seen as alternative development routes at different stages (Hall & Goodale 1986, 365).