Northern Cape
State of the Environment Report 2004
Atmosphere and Climate Specialist Report
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Northern Cape
State of the Environment Report 2004
Atmosphere and Climate Specialist Report
Final Version January 2005
Prepared for:Department of Tourism, Environment & Conservation
Private Bag X6102
Kimberley
8300
Project Manager: Abe Abrahams / Prepared by:
Riëtha Oosthuizen and Juanette John
CSIR Environmentek
P O Box 17001
Congella
4013
This report forms part of a series of specialist reports produced for the 2004 Northern Cape State of the Environment Report.
The production of this report was made possible with a generous donation from the National Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism through the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD).
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Table of Contents
1 Background 1
2 Introduction to Atmosphere and Climate 2
3 Atmosphere and Climate Issues in the Northern Cape 2
3.1 Asbestos 2
3.2 Renewable energy 3
3.3 Climate change 4
3.4 Air quality 4
3.5 Resource management 5
4 Atmosphere and Climate in the Northern Cape 6
4.1 Rehabilitation of asbestos mines 6
4.2 Use of renewable energy 8
4.3 Climate change as indicated by changes in weather patterns 9
4.4 Particulate matter concentrations 11
4.5 Effectiveness of resource management 13
5 Responses 14
5.1 International responses 14
5.1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 14
5.1.2 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 14
5.2 National responses 15
5.2.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996 15
5.2.2 Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, Act 45 of 1965 15
5.2.3 White Paper on Renewable Energy 15
5.2.4 National Environmental Management: Air Quality Bill 15
5.3 Provincial responses 16
5.3.1 Northern Cape Provincial Asbestos Forum 16
6 Summary of Atmosphere and Climate 16
7 References 17
8 Acknowledgements 20
2004 NC SoER – Atmosphere and Climate Specialist Report 1 of 7
1 Background
The Northern Cape Department of Tourism, Environment & Conservation (DTEC) (formerly the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform, Environment and Conservation (DALEC)) appointed CSIR to compile the 2004 Northern Cape State of the Environment (SoE) Report. The project process was divided into three phases, namely:
· Phase 1: Issues identification;
· Phase 2: Selection of Key Environmental Indicators; and
· Phase 3: Compilation of the 2004 SoE Report.
During this process, both specialists and stakeholders were given the opportunity to contribute to the project. Phase 1 entailed the selection of key environmental issues, described as topics of strategic concern that will influence the environmental sustainability of the province. A literature review of relevant and available information sources on the Northern Cape environment was used to create a preliminary list of key environmental issues, which was reviewed at a stakeholder workshop convened in Kimberley on 9 December 2003. The broad key environmental issues were prioritised and related issues were highlighted, forming the final list of key environmental issues that was sent out for stakeholder comment.
The broad key environmental issues identified in Phase 1 were then used as the basis for the development of a set of key environmental indicators in Phase 2. Specialist input was used to develop a proposed set of indicators. These environmental indicators, like the environmental issues, were grouped into broader categories, called ‘themes’. Although not every environmental issue listed has an indicator associated with it, the indicators selected for a theme provide the general understanding of the particular theme and allow the reader to gain insight into environmental trends within that theme.
The draft set of key environmental indicators from Phase 2 was presented at a stakeholder workshop in Kimberley on 19 January 2004. During the workshop, stakeholders were given the task of reviewing and finalising the indicators for either one or two themes. A handout of questions regarding the relevance and practicality of each indicator was used to guide the group discussions. Comments and suggestions as well as details of additional data sources were captured in answer sheets by a member of each group, and shared in the feedback session that followed. The finalised set of key environmental indicators was sent out for stakeholder comment.
Phase 3 of the project involved the compilation of the SoER, where each of the themes was investigated through a separate specialist study. Specialists were involved in compiling the draft studies, which were then subjected to a review. During this phase the specialists made use of the environmental indicators in their theme to generate an understanding of the complex interactions occurring in the Northern Cape environment. These individual specialist reports will be used to compile the popular and web versions of the 2004 Northern Cape SoER. This document provides the results of one of these specialist studies. It represents only one of a series of seven specialist reports produced for this project.
2 Introduction to Atmosphere and Climate
The atmosphere consists of nitrogen, oxygen and other gases, in a layer that envelopes the earth and can be considered the ‘lungs’ of the planet. The atmosphere is important as a planetary life-support system, and plays a critical role in the long-term health of human beings (CEC, 1997). Anything that disturbs the normal chemical balance of the atmosphere can be considered pollution. Pollution can be naturally caused (for example by forest fires) and is also caused by anthropogenic (man-made) activities (such as the burning of fossil fuels).
Pollutants, once emitted into the atmosphere, recognise no geographical or political boundaries, and their destination will depend on their physical and chemical characteristics, together with the prevailing meteorological conditions (CEC, 1997). Activities in the Province which might lead to increased air pollution include mining, a few industries, crop spraying and domestic fuel burning.
Some atmospheric gases (such as carbon dioxide) trap reflected heat from the sun thus keeping the earth warm. This is known as the natural greenhouse effect. However, anthropogenic activities (such as fossil fuel burning) increase the natural concentrations of these greenhouse gases, thereby enhancing the greenhouse effect. This is known as global warming. The effect of global warming is the global increase of surface temperatures leading ultimately to climate change. Global surface temperatures have increased at a rate of over 0.15 ºC per decade since 1976 (IPCC, 2001). Climate change prediction models show the possibility of an increase in aridity in the western regions of South Africa (including the Northern Cape). This aridity increase may result in changes in vegetation and crop production, amongst other things (Leuci and Ramsay, 1999).
Apart from a narrow strip of winter-rainfall area along the coast, the Northern Cape is a semi-arid region with little summer rainfall. The weather conditions are extreme, with cold and frost in winter and extreme heat in summer (Burger, 2002).
3 Atmosphere and Climate Issues in the Northern Cape
3.1 Asbestos
Asbestos is the collective mineralogical term given to a group of six different fibrous minerals (amosite, chrysotile, crocidolite, and the fibrous varieties of tremolite, actinolite and anthophyllite) that occur naturally in the environment. Asbestos minerals have long, separable fibres that are strong, flexible enough to be spun and woven, and are heat resistant. Because of these characteristics, asbestos has been used for a wide range of products, including building materials, automobile parts and heat resistant fabrics (ACGIH, 2001; ATSDR, 2001). Asbestos fibres enter the air from the breakdown of natural deposits or man-made asbestos products. Fibres may remain suspended in the air for a long time, and can be carried a fair distance by the wind before settling. Asbestos fibres are not able to move through soil, are not broken down to other compounds, and will remain virtually unchanged over long periods of time (ATSDR, 2001).
Inhalation of high levels of asbestos fibres over several years may result in scar-like tissue in the lungs and pleural membrane. This disease is called asbestosis and is usually found in workers exposed to asbestos. People with asbestosis have difficulty breathing, often have a cough, and in severe cases the heart may be enlarged. It is a serious disease and can eventually lead to disability and death. Mesothelioma, associated with asbestos, is cancer of the pleural membrane (ATSDR, 2001).
There are currently no operational asbestos mines in the Northern Cape. Asbestos mines flourished in the 1970’s because of the demand for asbestos, the rich deposits of crocidolite in particular (blue asbestos), and the availability of labour. At the time asbestos mining was still active in South Africa, five percent of asbestos used in the United States was imported from South Africa (ACGIH, 2001). The ‘Cape Crocidolite Field’ extends about 400 kilometres in a northerly direction from just south of Prieska, through Kuruman to the Botswana border (DME, 2004).
In the Northern Cape asbestos is still perceived as an important issue because of the many unrehabilitated mine dumps that still have the potential to pollute the environment, and therefore cause asbestosis or mesothelioma. The public still has access to some of these dumps, and some individuals recover the asbestos for resale as there is apparently still a market for it (Du Plooy, pers comm., 2003). In Prieska about 5 new cases (out of a population of about 15 000) of mesothelioma are diagnosed annually although the mines in the area have been closed since 1979 (Smith, pers comm., 2004).
Secondary impacts of asbestos pollution are likely to occur in the Northern Cape, considering the use of materials contaminated with asbestos for a variety of purposes, including school playgrounds and sports fields (e.g. long jump pit), roads and buildings (Brown University, 2001). Rehabilitation of some roads around the Kuruman area will take place in the near future (Olivier, pers comm., 2004).
3.2 Renewable energy
Broadly defined, renewable energy sources are those sources of energy arising from natural processes, and are regularly replenished (Sherman, 2001). The sun is the primary renewable energy source. Solar energy can be utilised directly as heat or light, as well as a secondary form of energy through its interaction with the natural environment. Other forms of renewable energy include wind energy, hydropower, ocean-generated energy and bio-energy.
Wind-power potential is generally good along the coast with mean annual speeds greater than 4ms-1, compared to moderate wind speeds of 3-4 ms-1 in the interior of the Province, and less than 3 ms-1 in the interior of South Africa (Diab, 1995). As South Africa is classified as being a generally dry country, it is seen to have little perennial hydropower potential (Burger and Beard, 1998). Most areas in South Africa average more than 2 500 hours of sunshine per year, with average daily solar radiation levels ranging from 4.5-6.5 kWh/m2 (Burger and Beard, 1998), which is relatively high. The area of the Northern Cape that borders on the Orange River and Namibia boasts the highest solar radiation intensity anywhere in southern Africa (Sherman, 2001). Solar energy is therefore likely to be the most viable alternative energy source for the Northern Cape.
3.3 Climate change
Greenhouse gases occur in the troposphere (or lower atmosphere) and are responsible for causing the greenhouse effect or global warming. These gases include ozone, methane, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon dioxide, water vapour and nitrous oxides (Enviropaedia, 2002). South Africa’s contribution to GHG emissions is relatively small on a global scale. However, on a per capita basis it is well above global averages and those of other middle-income developing countries. The energy sector in South Africa is a major source of GHG because of the heavy reliance on coal for electricity generation, the Sasol oil-from-coal process, and the scarcity of renewable energy resources such as hydro- and wind energy (Burger, 2002).
There is significant evidence that the increase in these GHG is having an effect on climatic conditions (Enviropaedia, 2002). Evidence of biological impacts of climate change across the world is accumulating (Foden, 2002). In the Northern Cape, findings from one study strongly suggest that the range of Aloe dichotoma has begun to respond to climate-induced stress, indicating that biodiversity in the region may be under threat from climate change (Foden, 2002).
Climate change may result in an increase in natural disasters, thus necessitating the need for disaster management. The National Disaster Management Centre was established in 1999 by the Department of Provincial and Local Government (DPLG) and has since been constituted to promote an integrated and co-ordinated system of disaster management. This does not include information on climate change per se but will provide information on disasters such as floods that may provide an indication of climate change (Killian, pers comm., 2003).
3.4 Air quality
Certain air pollutants are considered ‘classic’ air pollutants because they are emitted in large quantities in most countries and they have adverse effects on human health and crops (WHO, 1999). Most countries therefore have guidelines or standards for these pollutants and their concentrations may be used as indicators of the quality of the air in an area. These pollutants normally include sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), lead (Pb) and ozone (O3). The main health effects associated with these are related to the respiratory system, except for CO, which affects the central nervous system (WHO, 1999).
Ozone is a secondary pollutant while the others are primary pollutants emanating from industry, motor vehicles and fossil fuel combustion. There are no major industries in the Province emitting NO2 or SO2, except for a few open kiln brickworks (Table 1). Only 0.6% of Northern Cape households use coal as domestic fuel as it is far from the coalfields of South Africa. SO2 concentrations are therefore not considered to be an issue in the Province. However, many households (18%) do use paraffin (Statistics South Africa, 2003), indicating that indoor NO2 concentrations could be a potential issue. In South Africa, about 20 to 30 million people are estimated to be exposed to indoor air pollution from domestic fuel use in poorly ventilated places (Enviropaedia, 2002).
The main anthropogenic sources of ambient particulate matter in the Northern Cape are the mining industry and the scheduled processes mentioned in Table 1. Pollution ‘hot spots’ will therefore be associated with these activities.