SECTION 8: Trans:It (Science)

trans:it science

UNIT 4: MANAGING SCIENCE INFORMATION

1.Primary and Secondary Sources

New students can feel overwhelmed by ‘information overload’. They are often directed to a text by a tutor for a particular purpose, but they are still expected to find and read sources to complement knowledge gained from formal lectures, seminars and workshops.

Sources available to students will be primary or secondary in nature and both can be used in assignments as evidence to support ideas and arguments. However, it is important to know how to identify and use them correctly in assignments.

A Primary Source:

1. Published or produced by a reputable organisation/publisher, or placed on a credible online website, e.g. Government, University, other well-known organisation.

1. The author(s) are credible: they may not be ‘famous’, but are regarded highly by others in their specialist field. Publishers of academic books and journals would only accept and publish work by writers who fall into this category.

1. The work presented will originate directly from the people, the time, the place, the agencies involved in the event, or detailed with the task of commenting on the event, phenomenon, or situation in question. So it could include a detailed report, or summaries of research, produced by academics, post-graduate students, government laboratories, large commercial organizations etc.

1. It can, however, also include peer-reviewed, original interpretations, or new applications, of the ideas of others. So this could, for example, apply to someone who does a scientific literature-review, pulls together the ideas of others, and produces a new way of thinking about and/or applying those ideas. This could certainly apply to many post-graduate science students conducting experiments and presenting new interpretations of data in their dissertations.

1. The work produced would have been peer-reviewed before publication. This means other people of similar standing and experience to the writer will have had the chance to comment on and criticize the work before it is placed into the public domain. ‘Public domain’ could include a reputable website with a ‘discussion’ type section, allowing others to criticize and comment on the ideas displayed online.

A Secondary Source:

This is non-original material produced about the subject under discussion, includingsummaries of research, models, theories, and ideas

When to Use Primary and Secondary Sources

As stated earlier, it is very important to know when to use primary and secondary sources in your course work assignments.

Primary source material should be used, wherever possible, to support your main arguments, ideas and assertions. Most tutors prefer you to use primary sources in essays and reports wherever possible to support evidence.

Secondary source material can be used for lesser definitions, factual information, illustrative examples, and supporting points. Secondary sources are often found by ‘Google’ type searches on the Internet.

Exercise

The following are examples of sources used by students. Decide which are primary and secondary sources, and tick the relevant column.

Source

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Prim.

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Sec.

Articles in academic or other professional journals (printed or online) presenting new research, or a new interpretation of data
Books written by the creator of a particular theory, idea, model, or practice
Newspaper reports of new research findings
Wikipaedia Internet site
Speakers at a conference presenting the results of their research
Tutor handouts summarising the main theories and ideas associated with a subject
Reference books, e.g. Dictionary of Science Terms
Post-graduate dissertation presenting a new interpretation of science data
Text books summarising the work of others
Internet sites summarising the work of others
Internet site of an author where she/he presents his/her own research findings and interpretation of these
Articles in a general interest science magazine reporting on developments in a science field
Journalist talking about the work of a scientist, e.g. on a television programme
Reports written about a particular event by the main investigator
An entry in an online encyclopaedia
Weekly radio programme reporting on new developments in science

Your tutor will discuss your responses to this exercise with you. Alternatively, you can check out our answers to it yourself in the online tutor guidance notes for this Section and Unit.

2. Evaluating Internet Sites

You will be expected to use credible web sources in assignments, so it is important that you distinguish between internet sites. What makes a website credible and reliable? Questions to ask:

Ownership & Aim

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Content

Who is taking ‘ownership’ of the information presented? Is there a contact address, telephone number, and email address?
Why has this site been established – is it clear from the introduction?
Who is the sponsor of the site – who pays for it?
Who is the intended readership for the site?
Are there any biases or possible hidden agendas in the site?
Is it trying to sell you something? If so, be cautious of it.
Is it clear who is the originator or author for the item you want to cite?
Does the author have any academic or professional affiliation? / Do your tutors or librarians recommend this site?
Were you linked to this site from a reliable source?
Is the site regularly updated? When was the site last updated?
Are sources properly referenced? Does the site tell you where a particular theory, idea, statistic, or other data has come from, i.e. its original source?
Are the links provided working? (a site that is not being updated, should not be trusted)
What rationale (reasons) for the links is given?
Does the site include advertising? If so, might this influence the objectivity of the material?

3. Printed Sources

Printed texts are still important sources of knowledge for science students.

Exercise

In the left hand boxes below are shown sources of printed knowledge. Comments describing these sources are shown in the right hand columns. Match the comment box to the type of source shown.

Source Comment

1. Textbooks
Offers a broad-based foundation to the study of a subject / A: Provide an in depth focus on a particular topic, written usually by a well-regarded expert in the subject. However, this type of source can go out of date quite quickly – make sure you have the most current edition.
2. Specialist topic book (a ‘monograph’)
Deals with a single or narrow topic, e.g. liquid crystals. / B: Can provide a useful introduction to a subject, but can be of limited value in an academic essay because they are usually secondary, rather than primary sources.
3. General Science Journal
Publish review-type articles aimed at the general interest reader, e.g. New Scientist / C: These are important and up-to-date sources of information on significant developments in any science field. They can often, though, be ‘difficult reading’, because of the complexity of the language and ideas.
4. Academic Journals
Publish peer-reviewed articles on research and trends in the chosen science. / D: Useful for students, as they can offer a point of comparison, sources of relevant knowledge, and an exemplar for others. However, there may be no way of assessing the relative quality of the source against others of a similar nature.
5. Dissertations
These are research reports written by post-graduate students and held in libraries and other academic repositories. / E: Good starting points for students; provide a broad overview of a topic. However, they can go out of date quite quickly, so it is important to ensure you are reading the most current edition.

Answers1 = 2= 3= 4= 5=

Your tutor will discuss your responses to this exercise with you. Alternatively, you can check out our answers to it yourself in the online tutor guidance notes for this Section and Unit.

4. Key Concepts

It is important to understand key concepts in science, as you will find these recurring in academic writing. In particular, the four concepts shown in the grid below are commonly found in academic writing. What do they mean?

Match these concepts to their description, given: A – D below the grid.

1. Hypothesis

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2. Theory

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3. Law

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4. Proof

1. Evidence in support of an accepted theory. It can be argued that nothing in science can be proved beyond all doubt, as not all situations can be observed or measured. However, it can still be accepted as truth until such time as disproved by more or better observations.

1. A proposition based on reasoning and used as a starting point for investigation.

1. A concept which carries with it a degree of certainty or general acceptance.

1. A premise or idea used to explain observations that are derived from a proposition.

Your tutor will discuss your responses to this exercise with you. Alternatively, you can check out our answers to it yourself in the online tutor guidance notes for this Section and Unit.

5. Abbreviations and Science Glossary of Terms

Understanding abbreviations and scientific terminologywill help you to communicate with others in the same subject discipline. It takes time to learn them, but there are some online sites to help you:

(a) Abbreviations

Abbreviations.com:

The site claims to be the ‘Web’s largest acronym and abbreviations resource’. You can search by subject, e.g. ‘Academic and Science’.

LabRat.com:

LabRat provides an A-Z of commonly used abbreviations in the life sciences.

ChemInfo:

This site offers a comprehensive list of symbols, abbreviations, and acronyms encountered in the physical sciences.

Unit 5 of this workbook will offer some guidelines for using abbreviations in scientific writing.

(b) Glossary of Scientific Terms

A ‘glossary of terms’ is a list of definitions of scientific terms. A list of websites follows later, but first try this exercise.

Exercise

Try and match the following scientific terms with the definitions shown below.

Scientific Terms

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Which definition?

Acid

Amino acids

Compound

Molecule

1. A substance containing more than one element.

2.Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen compounds, the composition of which are determined by genes.

1. A compound that yields hydrogen ions(H+) when in aqueous solution.
2. A group of atoms bonded together. It is the smallest part of a substance that retains the chemical properties of the whole.

Your tutor will discuss your responses to this exercise with you. Alternatively, you can check out our answers to it yourself in the online tutor guidance notes for this Section and Unit.

Glossary Websites

Chemistry:The ‘All Chemicals’ Chemical Glossarycurrently has 651 chemical entries. You may search the Chemical Glossary by entering the keyword in the search box or by browsing the entire chemical glossary by letter in alphabetical order.

Physics: the ‘eTutorPhysics’ website has a similar A-Z search facility to find the meanings of physics related science terms.

Earth & Space Sciences: the European Space Agency (ESA) website has a useful glossary relating to both Earth and Space sciences.

Mathematics: Try Math.Com for a comprehensive A-Z glossary of maths terms.

Life Sciences: the Holmgren Laboratory have produced a comprehensive glossary of terms relating to developmental biology, genetic, cell biology, molecular biology, molecular genetic, and biochemistry.

6. Critical Reading

‘Critical’, in an academic sense, means to read carefully and in a questioning way. So ‘critical reading’ involves reading a text and being able to identify and understand the key points from it and to be able to summarise these in your own words. It also means having a set of relevant and apt questions in your mind as you read.

Socratic Questions

The Greek Philosopher, Socrates, tested the ideas of others by asking them open questions. These connect with what is called today the ‘5W+1H’ principle, as shown in the diagram that follows. The same questions can be used for critical reading purposes, and to guide your academic writing.

The 5W+1H Approach

Reading a scientific paper critically means asking questions of the different elements of the paper, as shown below.

Elements of a research paperSocratic Questions

Background: background or context to the research/work / What previous research has been done, and by whom? Who initiated the research, and why?
Aim of the research; hypothesis tested, if applicable / What is the research hoping to achieve? What idea/hypothesis is being tested?
Methodology: methods used to test the hypothesis, or previous research findings / What methods have been used to test the idea or hypothesis? Why were these methods used? Are these new methods, or based on previous research?
Findings/result: / What were the findings or result?
To what extent do the results connect with previous studies? Where there any inconsistencies, anomalies, or unexpected findings?
Discussion / To what extent do the research findings connect with the original research aim? What else needs to be learned? Is there anything missing from this research?
Limitations of the research / What were the limitations of the research? What else could have been done to improve it?
Additional research/testing suggested/needed / What additional research is suggested or needed from this result? How could this new research be approached or organised?
Applications/implications of the research / How can the finding from the research be applied? To what extent do they advance our knowledge of the subject? What are the implications of the research, now or in the future?

Reader – Writer Questions

Garratt, Overton and Threlfall(1999) suggests a range of questions that should be asked of any text in relation to you, the reader, and in relation to the source (the writer).

You – the Reader

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The Source – the Writer

Do the author’s ideas make sense to you? Do they seem valid and logical?
They may seem valid and logical but do they also seem right to you? If so, why? If not, why not?
Has the writer made an assumption that you know some fact or understand some theory or principle that you do not?
Has the writer simplified something more than you think is reasonable?
Can you link what you have learned from the writer to other knowledge? If so, what and how?
Have you acknowledged the writer – by citing and referencing the source properly? /
How did the writer arrive at his or her conclusions?
Could the experiments described by the writer be reproduced from the information provided?
How original are the writer’s ideas or conclusions?
How thorough is the writer’s analysis or summary of the event in question? Has any important evidence been omitted?
Does the writer build on the work of others? If so, who and when?
Does the writer suggest how his or her work could be developed by others?

Additional Sources of Help

Unit 4 of the main trans:it workbook for students has a lengthy section on effective note-making, which is relevant for all subject areas. The following are useful additional sources of help in managing information and critical reading and thinking.

‘YouTube’ has a good selection of short videos by students and teachers on managing reading at an advanced level. Search the site for ‘Critical Thinking’ and ‘Read and Learn More Effectively’. One useful clip found on‘YouTube’ is the ‘Critical Thinking Skills: Kaplan Open Learning’ clip, as the information is directed specifically at university students

The LearnHigher website has a set of useful resources for students on managing information, including critical reading and thinking.

The University of Plymouth has an ‘Effective Reading’ guide available online:

The University of Bradford, Effective Learning Service, has a series of booklets you can download. These include:

• Six Steps to Effective Reading
• Effective Note Making

Oxford Brookes Universityhas an excellent study skills website that operates on a click-on A-Z basis. You can click onto ‘C’ and choose ‘Critical Thinking’ or ‘R’ for ‘Reading Critically’, or any other learning skill that interests you.

References

Garratt, J. Overton, T., and Threlfall,T. (1999)AQuestion of Chemistry: Creative Problems for Curious Chemists. Harlow: Pearson-Longman.

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