College of Basic Education-Department of History

College of Basic Education-Department of History

Paper title: English Scripts Class: Fourth Year

Assis.Lect. Bushra M.K.Khudhair

Renaissance in Europe

The School of Athens

The school of Athens (1510-1511) is one of several frescoes that Italian Renaissance artist Raphael painted in the Vatican Palace’s Stanza dellaSegnatura. The fresco, which depicts ancient Greek philosophers and scholars, such as Plato and Aristotle, is considered a masterpiece in the portrayal of the artistic ideals of the Renaissance. It also illustrates the importance of classical studies to literary and cultural achievements of the era.

The word Renaissance means “rebirth” the idea of rebirth originated in he belief that Europeans had rediscovered the superiority of Greek and Roman culture after many centuries of what they considered intellectual and cultural decline. The preceding era, which began with the collapse of the Roman Empire around the 5th century, became known as the Middle Ages to indicate its position between the classical and modern world.

Geographical Discovers and European Expansion

Columbus, Christopher (1451-1506), was Italian Spanish navigator who sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a route to Asia, but achieved fame by making landfall in Americas instead.

Christopher was sailing west in an attempt to find a shorter route to India and China. He based his calculations for the journey on Biblical Scripture. On August 3, 1492, he departed from Palos de la Fonterra, Spain, on the first of several voyages to what he later called “The new world”.

On October 12, 1492, two worlds unknown to each other met for the first time on a small island in the Caribbean Sea. While on a voyage for Spain in search of a direct sea route from Europe to Asia, Columbus unintentionally discovered the Americas. However, in four separate voyages to the Caribbean from 1492 to 1504, he remained convinced that he had found the lands that Marco Polo reached in his overland travels to China at the end of the 13th century. To Columbus it was only a matter of time before a passage was found through the Caribbean islands to the fabled cities of Asia.

Columbus made four voyages from Spain to lands he later called the “New World”. On his first voyage, he explored parts of Cuba and Hispaniola in 1492 and 1493. From 1493 to 1496, he continued to explore these regions and also ventured to Puerto Rico and Jamaica. On his third voyage, from 1498 to 1500, he sailed along the northern coast of South America. On his final journey in 1502, Columbus explored the coast of Central.

Columbus was not the first European to reach the Americas, Vikings from Scandinavia had settled on the North American Coast, in what is now known as Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, In the late 10th or early 11th century. However, Columbus explorations had a profound impact on the world. They led directly to the opening of the western hemisphere to European colonization; to large scale exchanges of plants, animals, cultures and ideas between the two worlds; and on a darker note to the deaths of millions of indigenous American peoples from war, forced labor, and disease.

VOCABULARY

Italy / ايطاليا / cities / مدن
Italian / ايطالي / Cuba / كوبا
Spain / اسبانيا / Hispaniola / هسبانيلو
Spanish / اسباني / regions / مناظق
navigator / بحار / ventured / غامر
sailed / ابحر / Puerto Rico / بيرتوريكو
Atlantic Ocean / المحيط الاطلسي / Jamaica / جامايكا
route / طريق / along / على امتداد
achieved fame / انجز شهره / northern coast / الساجل الشمالي
making landfall / يرسو / coast of central / ساحل المركزي
explorer / مكتشف / European / اوروبي
an attempt / محاولة / reach / يصل
based / اسس / Scandinavia / اسكمدنافيه
calculations / حساباته / briefly / باختصار
Biblical scripture / الكتابات المقدسة / settled / اقام
August / اب / اغسطس / North American Coast / ساحل امريكا الشمالية
departed from / غادر من / Newfoundland / نيوفاندلاند
voyage / رحلة / Labrador / لابرادور
unknown / مجهول / Canada / كندا
a small island / جزيرة صغيرة / profound impact / تاثير كبير
Caribbean Sea / البحر الكاريبي / led/ p. of lead / أدت الى
Europe / اوروبا / directly / مباشرة
Asia / اسيا / western hemisphere / نصف الكرة الغربي
unintentionally / بدون نية مسبقة / European colonization / الاستعمار الاوروبي
discovered / اكتشف / large scale exchanges / تبادلات صخمة
separate voyages / رحلات متفرقة / plants / نباتات
remained convinced / لازال مقتنعا / animals / حيوانات
found/ find / وجد / cultures / ثقافات
lands / اراضي / ideas / افكار
China / الصين / deaths / اموات
overland / عبر اراضي / millions / ملايين
travels / رحلات / indigenous American peoples / شعوب امريكاالاصليين
explore / يكتشف / war / حرب
a matter of time / مسالة وقت / forced labor / العمل القسري
passage / ممر/ عبور / disease / مرض
fabled / اسطوري

TRANSLATION

Columbus, Christopher (1451-1506), was Italian Spanish navigator who sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a route to Asia, but achieved fame by making landfall in Americas instead.

الاكتشافات الجغرافية والتوسع الأوروبي

كريستوفر كولومبس (1451-1505)، هو بحار ايطالي اسباني أبحر غربا عبر المحيط الأطلسي باحثا عن طريقا إلى آسيا ، لكنه انجر شهرة ببلوغه يابسة الأمريكيتين بدلا عن ذلك.

Christopher was sailing west in an attempt to find a shorter route to India and China. He based his calculations for the journey on Biblical Scripture. On August 3, 1492, he departed from Palos de la Fonterra, Spain, on the first of several voyages to what he later called “The new world”.

لقد أبحر كريستوفر غربا في محاولة لإيجاد اقصر طريق إلى الهند والصين. ولقد استند في حسابات رحلته على الكتاب المقدس. في الثالث من أغسطس عام 1492، غادر من ميناء بالوسديفرونتيرا في اسبانيا في أول عدة رحلات أطلق عليها فيما بعد "بالعالم الجديد".

On October 12, 1492, two worlds unknown to each other met for the first time on a small island in the Caribbean Sea. While on a voyage for Spain in search of a direct sea route from Europe to Asia, Columbus unintentionally discovered the Americas. However, in four separate voyages to the Caribbean from 1492 to 1504, he remained convinced that he had found the lands that Marco Polo reached in his overland travels to China at the end of the 13th century. To Columbus it was only a matter of time before a passage was found through the Caribbean islands to the fabled cities of Asia.

وفي الثاني عشر من أكتوبر من عام 1492, التقى عالمان يجهل احدهما الأخر لأول مرة في جزيرة صغيرة في البحر الكاريبي. وبينما هو في رحلته إلى اسبانيا باحثا عن طريق بحري مباشر من أوروبا إلى آسيا، اكتشف كولومبس صدفة الأمريكيتين. على أية حال في أربع رحلات متفرقة إلى البحر الكاريبي من 1492 إلى 1504, بقى كولومبس مقتنعا بأنه وصل الأراضي التي سبقه إليها ماركو بولو في تنقلاته إلى الصين في نهاية القرن الثالث عشر. وقد وجد كولومبس ممر يوصل الجزر الكاريبية بالمدن الأسطورية في آسيا.

Columbus made four voyages from Spain to lands he later called the “New World”. On his first voyage, he explored parts of Cuba and Hispaniola in 1492 and 1493. From 1493 to 1496, he continued to explore these regions and also ventured to Puerto Rico and Jamaica. On his third voyage, from 1498 to 1500, he sailed along the northern coast of South America. On his final journey in 1502, Columbus explored the coast of Central.

لقد أطلق كولومبس على رحلاته الأربعة اسم "العالم الجديد", حيث اكتشف في رحلته الأولى أجزاء من كوبا وهاسبانيلو في 1492 و1493. واكتشف في رحلته الثانية من 1493 إلى 1496 أجزاء أخرى حيث غامر ووصل بيرتوريكووجامايكا, اما في رحلته الثالثة من عام 1498 إلى 1500 فقد أبحر على امتداد الساحل الشمالي من جنوب أمريكا. وفي رحلته الأخيرة في 1502 اكتشف ساحل المركز.

Columbus was not the first European to reach the Americas, Vikings from Scandinavia had settled on the North American Coast, in what is now known as Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, in the late 10th or early 11th century. However, Columbus explorations had a profound impact on the world. They led directly to the opening of the western hemisphere to European colonization; to large scale exchanges of plants, animals, cultures and ideas between the two worlds; and on a darker note to the deaths of millions of indigenous American peoples from war, forced labor, and disease

لم يكن كولومبس الأوروبي الأول الذي وصل الأمريكتين بل سبقه في ذلك البحار الاسكندينافي فيكنز الذي أقام على ساحل أمريكا الشمالية الذي يعرف ألان بـنيوفاوندلاندولابرادور في كندا في أواخر القرن العاشر وبداية القرن الحادي عشر. على أية حال، فان اكتشافات كولومبس لها الأثر العميق على العالم بأسره حيث قادت مباشرة إلى فتح نصف الكرة الغربي أمام أنظار الاحتلال الأوروبي وتبادل الحيوانات والنباتات والثقافات بشكل كبير بين العالمين وهناك غموض حول موت الملايين من شعوب أمريكا الأصليين بسبب الحرب والعمل القسري والمرض.

QUESTIONS

1. Who was Columbus?

-He was Italian Spanish navigator who sailed west across the Atlantic ocean in search of a route to Asia but achieved fame by making landfall on the Americas instead.

1. What did Columbus discover in his first voyage?And when?

-He discovered parts of Cuba and Hispaniola in 1492 and 1493.

1. What did Columbus discover in his second voyage? And when?

-He continued to discover other regions and ventured to Puerto Rico and Jamaica from 1493 to 1496.

1. What did Columbus discover in his third voyage? And when?

-He discovered the northern coast from 1498 to 1500.

1. What did Columbus discover in his final {fourth) voyage? And when?

-He discovered the coast of Central in 1503.

1. Was Columbus the first European to reach the Americas? Then who?

-Columbus was not the first European to reach Americas; Vikings from Scandinavia reached the North Americas Coast.

1. When did Vikings reach the Americas?

-He reached the Americas in the late 10th and early 11th century.

1. What did Columbus voyages lead to?

-Columbus voyages led to openings of western hemisphere to European colonization and to large exchanges of plants, animals and cultures between two worlds.

1. What were reasons behind deaths of millions of Indigenous American people?

-Reasons were war, forced labor and disease.

VOCABULARY

understanding / فهم / quickly realized / سرعان ما ادركوا
a century of change / قرن التغيير / nation / أمة
events / أحداث / very wealthy / ثرية جدا
occurred / حدثت / monopolizing / تبادل
profoundly / بعمق / highly profitable / مربحة جدا
affected / اثرت / Asian trade / التجارة الاسيوية
European society / المجتمع الاوروبي / actively / بفعالية
long conflict / الصراع الطويل / seeking / باحثا عن
followers / اتباع / a sea route / طريق بحري
religion / دين / Portugal / البرتغال
far reaching effects / اثار بعيدة المدى / Portuguese / البرتغاليون
fall of Constantinople / سقوط اسطنبول / exploring / اكتشاف
Ottoman Empire / الامبراطوية العثمانية / Africa / افريقيا
Orthodox Christians / طائفة الاروثودكس المسيحية / invaded / غزت
Byzantine Empire / الامبراطوية البيزنطية / commercial center / المركز التجاري
trade / تجارة / Ceuta / سبته وامليلة
conquered / دحرت / The Striate of Gibraltar / جبل طارق
southeastern Europe / جنوب شرقي اوروبا / lucrative African trade / التجارة الافريقيةالمكسبة
captured / حاصرت ، طوقت / dominated / سيطر على
Asian goods / البضائع الاسيوية / tutelage / وصاية
Alexandria / الاسكندرية / invasion / غزو
longed for / تلهف الى / western coast / الساحل الغربي
allow them / يسمح لهم / the riches / ثروات
bypass / بالمرور / southern tip / القمة الجنوبية
purchase / شراء / full of excitement / مليء بالمتعة
directly / مباشرة / continent / قارة

TRANSLATION

The first European nation to begin actively seeking a sea route to Asia was Portugal. The Portuguese had already begun exploring Africa in the early 1400s, and in 1415 they invaded northern Africa and conquered the Muslim commercial center of Ceuta on the Strait of Gibraltar. This gained the Portuguese access to the lucrative African trade, which, until that time, had been dominated by the Muslims. Under the tutelage of the Prince Henry the navigator, who established a school for the navigators in the southern Portugal shortly after the Ceuta invasion. The Portuguese began exploring the western coast of Africa, hoping to find a route to the riches of Asia by going around the southern tip of the continent. Other nations, not wanting to be left behind, began sponsoring voyages of exploration as well. Into this world, full of the excitement of exploration and discovery, Christopher Columbus was born.

إن اول دولة بدات البحث عن طريق بحري الىاسيابجد كانت البرتغال. حيث اكتشف البرتغاليون افريقيا في بدايات القرن الخامس عشر, ففي 1415 قاموا بغزو افريقيا الشمالية ودحروا المركز التجاري للمسلمين سبته وامليله في مضيق جبل طارق. هذا الامر مكن البرتغاليين من الوصول الىالتجارةالافريقية المربحة التي لازالت في ذلك الوقت مسيطر عليها من قبل المسلمين. وتحت نفوذ الامير هنري وهو البحار الذي اسس مدرسة للملاحيين في جنوب البرتغال بعد فترة وجيزة من غزو سبته وامليله. ان البرتغاليين بدأو باكتشاف الساحل الغربي لافريقيا, املينايجاد طريق الى ثروات اسيا بالمرور حول القمة الجنوبية للقارة. أما الاممالاخرى فلم تكن تريد ان تتخلف, بل بدأت برحلات استكشافية مشتركة. في هذا العالم المليء بمتعة الاستكشافات ولد كريستوفر كولومبس.

QUESTIONS

1. Which century was a century of change?

-The 15th century was a century of change.

1. By what were many events driven and affected European society?

-Many events were driven by the centuries long conflict between Christians and Muslims.

1. Who are Muslims?

-Muslims are followers of Islam.

1. What was the event that had far reaching effects on Europe in 15th century?

-The fall of the city of Constantinople was the event that had far reaching effects on Europe in 15th century.

1. What had Constantinople been?

-Constantinople had been the capital of the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire for centuries, and it was an important center for trade between Europe and Asia.

1. When did the Ottoman Empire conquer much of southeastern Europe?

-In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered mush of the southern Europe.

1. From where could European merchants buy Asian goods from Muslims?

-European merchants could buy Asian goods from Alexandria, Egypt.

1. Why did Europeans long for a sea route to Asia?

-Europeans longed for a sea route to Asia that would allow them to bypass the Muslims and purchase Asian products directly.

1. What did European princes and kings quickly realize?

-European princes and kings quickly realized that the first nation to find such a route could become very wealthy by monopolizing the highly profitable Asian trade.

1. What was the first nation seeking a sea route to Asia.

-Portugal was the first nation seeking a sea route to Asia.

1. Who established a school for navigators?

-Prince Henry established a school for navigators.

1. When did Portuguese conquer Muslim commercial center of Ceuta?

-Portuguese conquered Muslim commercial center of Ceuta in 1415.

Early Seafaring Career

Beginning his seagoing career at age of 14, Columbus served on various ships in various roles, including messenger, common sailor and perhaps even as a 21 years old as privateer. Columbus's son stated in History of the Life and Deeds of Christopher Columbus that in 1472, he was given command of a ship on a privateer expedition to Tunis in Northern Africa. In alost letter, Columbus supposedly related to his son how Rene I, duke of the French province of Anjou, had commissioned Columbus to make a surprise attack on a large Spanish ship sailing off the coast of north Africa. Most historians doubt, however, that Columbus ever received command of the expedition.

Much more credible, though, is a subsequent expedition. In 1474, Columbus was hired as a sailor on a ship bound for the Island of Khios in the Aegean Sea, an arm of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. This was his first long voyage and must have proved profitable, because after spending a year on the island he was able to become economically independent from his family. This voyage also represents a great Irony in the life of Columbus, the trip to this small island in the Aegean brought him the closest he would ever get to Asia.

On August 13, 1476, a Genoese commercial expedition of five ships bound for England gave Columbus his first opportunity to leave the Mediterranean Sea and sail into the Atlantic Ocean. But it was an inauspicious beginning for Columbus: According to tradition, the entire fleet was attacked by French privateers off Cape Saint Vincent on the southern tip of Portugal. Both sides lost ships , Columbus, one of the unfortunate ones whose ship was burned, had no escape other than to swim for the Portuguese coast. He made the 10 km (6 miles) to shore by clinging to wreckage. After regaining his strength in the port of Lagos. Columbus made his way to Lisbon and its large community of Genoese merchants and shipbuilders.

Expansion of Arabs into Southern Europe

Spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries: the religion of Islam spread through conversion and military conquest throughout the Middle East and North Africa. By 733, just 100 years after the death of Mohammad, the founder of Islam, an ordered Islamic state stretched from India in the East to Spain in the west.

By 719 Muslims controlled most of Iberian Peninsula. The Moors, as the Muslim Conquerors came to be known, pushed northward into France, where their advance was repelled by Frankish leader Charles Martin in 732 near Poitiers. The Moors then retreated south of the Pyrenees, and for the next several centuries they dominated nearly all of Spain.

At first, Islamic Spain or Al-Andulus, as it was known, was ruled as part of the province of North Africa, a division of the caliphate of Damascus. At that time, Damascus, in modern Syria, was the capital of the Islamic world and the residence of the powerful Umayyad caliphs (religious and secular leaders). The power of the caliphate in Spain was weak, however, and governors (emirs) appointed by Damascus had little real authority. In 750, the Abbasids deposed the Umayyad ruling family in Damascus and claimed their caliphate.

The Moorish influence in Cordoba, Spain, dates from the 8th century, when it became a Muslim caliphate. This city includes the cathedral, originally an impressive mosque.

Abd-al-Rahman I, a member of the Umayyad family, fled from Syria and established an independent emirate at Cordoba in southern Spain in 756. His Iberian Umayyad dynasty centralized power and ruled Al-Andulus for almost 300 years.

Cordoba reached its peak under Abd-al-Rahman III, who established the caliphate of Cordoba in 929. By then Cordoba was one of the largest and most cosmopolitan cities in the Mediterranean world.

Over time, ruling elites across Muslim Spain Cordoba and other Muslim cities, challenged to became independent. This trend accelerated in 1036 with the death of last Umayyad caliphs. Spain fragmented into a mosaic of small, independent Muslim kingdoms, known as taifas. The most important of these were Cordoba, Seville, Granada, Toledo, Lisbon, Zaragoza, Murcia and Valencia.

VOCABULARY

spread of Islam / انتشار الاسلام / ruling family / العائلة الحاكمة
religion / دين / claimed / ادعى
conversion / The Moorish influence / التأثير
military conquest / فتح عسكري / Cordoba / قرطبة
Middle East / الشرق الاوسط / architecture / هندسة معمارية
The founder of Islam / مؤسس الاسلام / originally / بالاصل
Islamic state / الدولة الاسلامية / impressive / مثير للاعجاب
stretched / اتسعت / mosque / مسجد
India / الهند / member / عضو
Spain / اسيانيا / fled / هرب من
east / شرق / an independent Emirate / امارة مستقلة
west / غرب / dynasty / سلالة
north / شمال / centralized
south / جنوب / power / سلطة
eastern / الشرقي / reached its peak / وصلت ذروتها
western / الغربي / largest / اكبر
southern / الجنوبي / cosmopolitan / عالمي
northern / الشمالي / Mediterranean / البحر المتوسط
controlled / سيطر على / over time / بمرور الزمن
Iberian Peninsula / شبه جزيرة ابيريا / elites
the Moors / challenged / بارز, نافس
pushed northward / اندفع باتجاه الشمال / trend / اتجاه
repelled / صدت / accelerated / تسريع
Pyrenees / البيرينيه / death / موت
dominated / سيطرعلى, هيمن على / fragmented / تجزءالى
Al-Andulus / الاندلس / taifas / ملوك الطوائف
ruled / حكمٍ / Seville / اشبيليا
province / ولاية / Granada / غرناطة
caliphate / خليفة / Toledo / توليدو
Damascus / دمشق / Lisbon / لاشبونا
Syria / سوريا / Zaragoza / سرقسطة
capital / عاصمة / Murcia / موريسيا
Islamic world / العالم الاسلامي / Valencia / فالنسيا
residence / اقامة / appointed by / عين من قبل
powerful / قوي / real authority / سلطة حقيقية
Umayyad caliphs / الخلفاء امويين / deposed / انهى , عزل
religious / ديني
secular / مدني
governors / حكام

TRANSLATION

توسع العرب إلى جنوب أوروبا

Spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries: the religion of Islam spread through conversion and military conquest throughout the Middle East and North Africa. By 733, just 100 years after the death of Mohammad, the founder of Islam, an ordered Islamic state stretched from India in the East to Spain in the west.

انتشار الاسلام في القرنين السابع والثامن: انتشر الدين الاسلامي من خلال التحول والفتوحات العسكرية فيالشرقالاوسط وشمال افريقيا. وفي عام 733 وبعد وفاة النبي محمد,مؤسس الاسلام , بمئة عام امتدت الدولة الاسلامية من الهند شرقا الى اسبانيا غربا.

By 719 Muslims controlled most of Iberian Peninsula. The Moors, as the Muslim Conquerors came to be known, pushed northward into France, where their advance was repelled by Frankish leader Charles Martin in 732 near Poitiers. The Moors then retreated south of the Pyrenees, and for the next several centuries they dominated nearly all of Spain.

وفي عام 719 سيطر المسلمون على معظم شبه الجزيرة الابيريه. وجاء المغاربة او الفاتحين المسلمين كما عرفوا حينها واندفعوا باتجاه الشمال الى فرنسا حيث قاومهم القائد الفرنسي جارلس مارتن بالقرب من بواتير عام 732. حيث تراجع المغاربة الى جنوب جبال البراينس, وهيمنوا على كل اسبانيا تقريبا لعدة قرون.

At first, Islamic Spain or Al-Andulus, as it was known, was ruled as part of the province of North Africa, a division of the caliphate of Damascus. At that time, Damascus, in modern Syria, was the capital of the Islamic world and the residence of the powerful Umayyad caliphs (religious and secular leaders). The power of the caliphate in Spain was weak, however, and governors (emirs) appointed by Damascus had little real authority. In 750, the Abbasids deposed the Umayyad ruling family in Damascus and claimed their caliphate.

في البداية, عرفت اسباتياالاسلامية ببلاد الاندلس, وحكمت كجزء من ولاية شمال افريقيا التي هي جزء من الخلافة الاموية. دمشق في سوريا حديثا, كانت عاصمة العالم الاسلامي ومقرا للخلفاء الامويينالاقوياء ( الخلفاء هم علماء دين وقادة مدنيين). سلطة او قوة الخليفة في اسبانيا كانت ضعيفة والحكام يعينون من قبل دمشق ولديهم سلطة قليلة نوعا ما. وفي عام 750 جاء العباسيون وعزلوا العائلة الاموية الحاكمة وادعوا خلافتهم.

The Moorish influence in Cordoba, Spain, dates from the 8th century, when it became a Muslim caliphate. This city includes the cathedral, originally an impressive mosque.

نفوذ المغاربة في قرطية, في اسبانيا, يؤرخ من القرن الثامن حيث اصبحت اسبانيا تحت الحلافة الاسلامية وقرطبة تضم الكاثديرل الذي هو بالاساس كان مسجدا غاية الروعة.

Abd-al-Rahman I, a member of the Umayyad family, fled from Syria and established an independent emirate at Cordoba in southern Spain in 756. His Iberian Umayyad dynasty centralized power and ruled Al-Andulus for almost 300 years.

عبد الرحمن الاول, هواحدافراد العائلة الاموية، فر من بلاد الشام واسسامارة مستقلة في قرطبة في جنوبي اسبانيا عام 756. وان سلالته الاموية الحاكمة حكمت بلاد الاندلس لمدة 300 عام.

Cordoba reached its peak under Abd-al-Rahman III, who established the caliphate of Cordoba in 929. By then Cordoba was one of the largest and most cosmopolitan cities in the Mediterranean world.

وصلت قرطبة الىاوج ذروتها عندما كانت تحت حكم عبد الرحمن الثالث, الذي كانت خلافنه في 929. عندها كانت قرطبة احد اكبر المدت العالمية في حوض البحر المتوسط.