Rhetorical Vocabulary • AP Language and Composition

Argument and Logic

ad hominem

Latin for "against the man." When a writer personally attacks his or her opponents instead of their

arguments.

analogy

An extended comparison based on the like features of two unlike things: one familiar or easily

understood, the other unfamiliar, abstract, or complicated

analyze

To separate a subject into its parts. Two forms of this are PROCESS ANALYSIS (breaking a process

into steps) and DIVISION (breaking a complicated thing into smaller parts).

argument

A mode of writing intended to win readers' agreement with an assertion by engaging their powers of

reasoning.

authority

Recognized experts or persons with highly relevant experience hold authority. Readers are expected to

accept claims in agreement with authoritative views.

begging the question

When the believability of the evidence depends on the believability of the claim. Also called CIRCULAR

REASONING.

causal relationship

Where the writer asserts that one thing results from another.

common knowledge

Shared beliefs or assumptions. A writer may argue that if something is widely believed, then readers

should accept it.

deduction

A process of reasoning which goes from the general (what we already know) to the particular (what

we need or want to know).

either-or reasoning

When the writer reduces an argument or issue to two polar opposites and ignores any alternatives.

emotional appeal

When a writer appeals to an audience's emotions to excite and involve them in the argument.

ethical appeal

When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a

presentation of image of self through the text.

fallacy

An error in reasoning.

false analogy

When two cases are not sufficiently parallel to lead readers to accept a claim of connection between

them.

induction

The process of reasoning to a conclusion about a group based on an examination of the group's

members.

inference

The act or result of drawing a conclusion.

non-sequiter

Latin for "it does not follow." When one statement is not logically connected to another.

oversimplification

When a writer obscures or denies the complexity of the issues in an argument.

persuasion

A mode of writing intended to influence people's actions by engaging their beliefs and feelings.

post hoc, ergo propter hoc Latin for "after this, therefore because of this." When a writer implies that because one thing follows

another, the first caused the second. However, sequence is not cause.

premise

A proposition or assumption which supports a conclusion.

proposal

A recommendation that an action be taken.

red herring

When a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue.

refutation

When a writer musters relevant opposing arguments.

rhetorical question

A question posed for effect which requires no answer, but which provokes thought or discussion.

EXAMPLE: "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?"

straw man

When a writer argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak.

Setting up a straw man draws attention away from the real issues.

thesis

The central idea of a work of writing, to which everything in the work refers. The thesis is a promise

or guide to readers of what is to come in the piece.

Diction

abstract

Language which refers to ideas, conditions, and qualities we cannot directly perceive: truth, courage,

love. poverty, progressive, reactionary

cliché

A worn–out, trite expression that a writer employs thoughtlessly. EXAMPLE: "If I believe it, I can

achieve it," and other catch phrases used in college essays.

colloquial language

Words and phrases commonly used in informal speech. Used in writing, it produces a relaxed,

conversational tone.

concrete

Concrete words indicate things we know with our senses, such as pencil, telephone, woman. Concrete

words add clarity by helping the reader picture things.

connotation

The implied meaning of a word built through the reader's associations. EXAMPLE: A "politician" is

someone who lies and cheats or is verbally slick.

denotation

The explicit, literal, dictionary definition of a word. EXAMPLE: A "politician" is one who pursues a

career in politics.

diction

Choice of words. Diction takes many forms, such as standard English, nonstandard English, slang,

colloquial expressions, jargon, etc.

euphemism

Using inoffensive language to substitute for language which readers might find objectionable: using

"passed on" for "died."

jargon

The special vocabulary of a trade or profession. Also, inflated, vague, or meaningless language which

is wordy, abstract, and needlessly complicated.

Figurative Language

allegory

A story in which characters, tings, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these

elements is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth.

allusion

Referring to a person, place, or thing believed to be common knowledge; a space–saving way to

convey much meaning

analogy

An extended comparison based on the like features of two unlike things: one familiar or easily

understood, the other unfamiliar, abstract, or complicated

figurative language

Expressions which depart from the literal meanings of words for the sake of emphasis or vividness.

EXAMPLE: "I hate your guts."

generalization

A statement about a class based on an examination of some of its members. EXAMPLE: "White men

can't jump."

hyperbole

A conscious exaggeration used for effect. EXAMPLE: "I'm so hungry, I could eat a horse."

image

A word or words, either figurative or literal, used to describe a sensory experience or an object

perceived by the senses. An image is always concrete.

imagery

Using vivd or figurative language to represent objects, actions, or ideas to elicit emotional response to

writing.

irony

A manner of speaking or writing that does not directly state a discrepancy, but implies one. Irony can

be verbal or situational.

metaphor

A comparison between two apparently unlike things which declares one thing to be another.

EXAMPLE: "A mighty fortress is our God."

onomotopoeia

The use of a word whose pronunciation suggests its meaning. EXAMPLES: buzz, bang, slam, pop

paradox

A seemingly self–contradictory statement that, upon reflection, makes sense. EXAMPLE: "Children are

the poor person's wealth."

personification

A simile or metaphor which assigns human traits to inanimate objects or abstractions. EXAMPLE: "I

used hairspray, but my hair laughed at me."

satire

Writing which employs wit to attack folly. Satire is used not only to entertain, but also to bring about

enlightenment or reform.

simile

A direct comparison between two apparently unlike things using "like" or "as" to connect them.

EXAMPLE: "My love is like a red, red rose."

stereotype

A generalization (usually incorrect) about a group which has become a cliché. EXAMPLES: absent–

minded professor, dumb jock, nerdy "A" student.

symbol

A visible object or action that suggests further meaning. Using symbols helps communicate a complex

idea in a compact way. EXAMPLE: The U.S. flag.

understatement

An exaggeration which creates an ironic or humorous effect. EXAMPLE: "I accepted the ride. At the

moment, I didn't feel like walking alone through Harlem at 2:00 a.m."

Overall Effect

aesthetic quality

The overall effect of a piece that can be labeled artful or beautiful.

audience

A writer's readers. Having a particular audience in mind helps the writer select strategies for the piece

of writing.

coherence

The clear connection of the parts in a piece of effective writing. Coherence exists when the reader can

easily follow the writer's flow of ideas and see how they relate.

mood

An atmosphere crated by a writer's diction and the details selected. Syntax can also determine mood

because sentence length and complexity affect pacing.

parody

An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. Teh writer of a parody uses the

quirks of style of the imitated piece in extreme or ridiculous ways.

persona

A fictional voice or mask used by the writer to tell a story. Persona is usually determined by a

combination of subject matter and audience.

point of view

The physical position or mental angle from which a writer beholds a subject.

rhetoric

The art and study of using language effectively. Rhetoric has a negative connotation which means

"empty or pretentious language used to deceive."

style

The distinctive manner in which a writer writes. Style may be seen especially in the writer's word

choice and sentence structure.

tone

The way a writer expresses regard for or attitude toward subject, audience, or self through word

choice, sentence structures, and what is actually said.

unity

The quality of good writing in which all parts relate to the thesis and support its central idea.

voice

The sense of the author's character, personality, and attitude that comes through the words.

Reading

context

The part of a text or statement that surrounds a particular word or passage and determines its

meaning.

explicit

Fully and clearly expressed.

fact

Information presented as objectively real, which has real, demonstrable existence.

implication

The act of implying; that is, suggesting, expressing, or indicating something indirectly.

implicit

Something that is implied or understood without being directly expressed; contained in the nature of

something though not readily apparent.

inference

The act or result of drawing a conclusion.

inherent

Existing as an essential characteristic; intrinsic.

opinion

A belief or conclusion held with confidence but not substantiated by positive knowledge or proof.

Syntax

balanced

Construction in which both halves of the sentence are about the same length and importance.

clause

A group of words containing a subject and verb. A DEPENDENT clause is used as a noun or modifier;

an INDEPENDENT clause contains both a subject and verb.

complex sentence

A sentence containing only one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

compound sentence

A sentence containing two or more independent clauses. Compound-complex sentences also contain

additional dependent elements.

ellipsis

Leaving something out of the sentence, usually marked by three periods (...) .

inversion

Variation of the normal word order which puts the modifier or verb as first in the sentence. The

element that appears first is emphasized more than the subject.

loose

A sentence in which the subordinate elements come at the end to call attention to them.

parallelism

Keeping ideas of equal importance in similar grammatical form. EXAMPLE: "Among these are life,

liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

periodic

Sentence that places the main idea or central complete thought at the end of the sentence, after all

introductory elements.

phrase

A group of words used as a single part of speech.

simple sentence

A sentence containing only one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

Writing

cause and effect

A method of development in which a writer analyzes reasons for an action, event, or decision, or

analyzes its consequences.

classification

A method of development in which a writer sorts out plural things into categories.

comparison/contrast

Two methods of development usually found together. Using them, a writer examines the similarities

and differences between two things to reveal their natures.

definiton

A method of development in which a writer usually explains the nature of a word, a thing, a concept,

or a phenomenon.

division

The act or result of dividing a subject into its parts.

narration

The mode of writing that tells a story. Short narrations included in other essays are called anecdotes.

process analysis

A method of development that most often explains step by step how something is done or how to do

something.

Rhetorical Vocabulary • AP Language and Composition

Kennedy, X. J., Kennedy, Dorothy, and Aaron, Jane E. The Bedford Reader. 5th ed. Boston: Bedford Books, 1994.