Idi- 245 Introduction the Literature of English Speaking Countries

IDI- 245 INTRODUCTION THE LITERATURE OF ENGLISH SPEAKING COUNTRIES

BY PROFESSOR SABINO MORLA

Anglo-Saxon Literature

IDI-245 SITE-

8.1. General Characteristics

The Old English language, also called Anglo-Saxon, was the earliest formof English. It is difficult to give exact dates for the rise and development of anylanguage, because changes in languages do not occur suddenly. However, OldEnglish was in use from about 600 AD to about 1100.

Anglo-Saxon(orOld English)literaturerefers to literature written in

Anglo-Saxon (Old English) during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of Britain,from the mid-5thcentury AD to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These worksinclude genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legalworks, chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400 survivingmanuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest andspecialist research.

A large number of manuscripts remain from the Anglo-Saxon period,most of them written during the last 300 years (9th–11thcentury AD), in both Latinand the vernacular1. Old English literature is among the oldest vernacularlanguages to be written down, second only to Gothic. Old English began, in writtenform, as a practical necessity after the Danish invasions. Church officials wereconcerned that because of the drop in Latin literacy no one could read their work.Likewise KingAlfred the Great (849–899 AD), tried to restore English culture,and lamented the poor state of Latin education. Alfred noted that while very fewcould read Latin, many could still read Old English. He thus proposed that studentsbe educated in Old English, and those who excelled would go on to learn Latin. Inthis way many of the texts that have survived are typical teaching and student-oriented texts.

Not all of the remaining texts from the Anglo-Saxon period can be fairlycalled literature, such as lists of names or aborted pen trials. However there aremany of them that can present a sizable body of work, such as sermons and saints'lives (the most numerous), biblical translations; translated Latin works of the earlyChurch Fathers; Anglo-Saxon chronicles and narrative history works; laws, willsand other legal works; practical works on grammar, medicine, geography; poetry.Nearly all the Anglo-Saxon authors remain anonymous, with few exceptions.

Anglo-Saxon literature was divided according to various criteria. One ofthe generally accepted classification divides it into Old English Pagan Poetry (449-670 AD); Old English Christian Poetry (671-871 AD); Old English Prose (871-1100 AD) (Gavriliu: 2000, p. 6).

8.2. Old English Poetry

Old English poetry can be divided into pre-Christian (pagan) heroic poetry

(of Germanic origin) and Christian poetry. Old English heroic poetry is the earliest

1Avern acu l arlanguage is the standard native language of a country or locality.

extant in all of Germanic literature. It is thus the nearest we can come to the oralpagan literature of Germanic culture, and is also of inestimable value as a source ofknowledge about many aspects of Germanic society.

Old English heroic poetry falls into two categories: those poems presentingfigures and events of the so-calledheroic ageand those describing contemporaryevents. Theheroic ageis a temporal construct that features people and tribes of theearly European migration age. Heroic poems are written in an elegiac tone. Theydescribe grim scenery: cliffs and swamps, grey waves crushing against the rocks,monsters living in the swamps and forests. A grim imagination, a pessimistic andsad world view led to the creation of these impressive pictures; we can recognizethe imprint of a people that lived in a harsh environment. The sea is admirablydescribed in many heroic or elegiac poems. The Anglo-Saxon poems have beenoften compared with Homeric poems, as they also illustrate the features of theheroic age(Maurois: 1970, pp. 70-71).

Old English poetry has survived for the most part in four manuscripts. The

first manuscript is called theJunius manuscript(also known as theCaedmon

manuscript), an illustrated poetic anthology. The second is called theExeter Book,

also an anthology, located in the Exeter Cathedral since it was donated there in the11thcentury. The third manuscript is called theVercelli Book, a mix of poetry andprose; how it came to be in Vercelli, Italy, no one knows, and is a matter of debate.The fourth manuscript is called theNowell Codex, and it is also a mixture ofpoetry and prose. The Nowell Codex is part of theCotton collection1.

Old English poetry had no known rules or system left to us by the Anglo-Saxons, and everything we know about it is based on modern analysis. The firstwidely accepted theory was byEduard Sievers2in which he distinguished fivedistinct alliterative patterns. The theory ofJohn C. Pope3uses musical notationswhich has had some acceptance.

The most popular and well known understanding of Old English poetry

continues to be Sievers’ alliterative verse. The system is based upon accent,

alliteration4, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. It

consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme. The system was inherited

and exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic languages.

Another common feature of Old English poetry isKennings(figurativephrases), often formulaic, describing something in terms of another (e.g. inBeowulf, the sea is called theswan's road). Also frequently employed areLit ot es,a figure of speech which is dramatically understated, often with ironic intent andeffect.

1TheCottonorCottonian librarywas a library compiled by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton (1571 - 1631). This

collection is the single greatest resource of literature in Old English and Middle English we have.

2Eduard Sievers(25 November 1850, Lippoldsberg - 30 March 1932, Leipzig) was a German philologist, of the

classical and Germanic languages. He developed a theory of the meter of Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse.

3John C Popedeveloped a theory on the rhythm and tempo of Old English verse during recitation, together with

Andreas Heusler. His system takes the musical concept of the measure as its basis and states that four isochronous(equally timed) measures are found in all lines. When a normal enunciation of the syllables in the half-line does notfill the measure, Pope has suggested that the harp would be struck to fill in the rest in the verbal music.

4Al li terati on,in Old English poetry, is the repetition of consonant sounds in stressed or initial syllables.(Gavriliu:

2003, p. 143)

Old English poetry was an oral craft, and our understanding of it in writtenform is incomplete. For example, we know that the poet, referred to as aScop1,could be accompanied by a harp. There may be other audio traditions we are notaware of.

Poetry represents the smallest amount of the surviving Old English text, butAnglo-Saxon culture had a rich tradition of oral story telling, just not much waswritten down or survived.

Most Old English poets are anonymous. Twelve of them are known byname from medieval sources, but only three of those are known by their works tous today: Caedmon, Aldhelm, and Cynewulf.

Caedmonis the most well known and considered the father of Old English

poetry. He lived at the abbey of Whitby in Northumbria in the 7th century.Caedmon adapted the heroic vocabulary of the oldest English verse and the poetictechnique of traditional Germanic versification to a Christian purpose. Someparaphrases or altered versions of his poems on biblical subjects are found in the

Junius manuscript:Genesis(Genesis Acontains the first 22 chapters of the Old

Testament;Genesis Btalks of the rebellion of the angels led by Satan);Exodus(aparaphrase of the crossing of the Red Sea by Israelites);Judith(the story of aJewish heroine who helped her people defeat the Assyrians).

Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne2(709 AD), is known thanks to William of

Malmesbury3who talked of his performance of secular songs. Most of his Latinprose has survived, but none of his Old English remains.

Cynewulfhas proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent researchsuggests he wrote his works in the early part of the 9th century, to which a numberof poems are attributed includingThe Fates of the ApostlesandHelene(bothfound in the Vercelli Book), andChrist IIandJuliana(both found in the ExeterBook).

The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with

the Germanic heroic past. The longest (3,182 lines), and most important, is

Beowulf, which appears in the damaged Nowell Codex from theCotton

Collection. It tells the story of the legendary Geatish hero Beowulf who is the title

character. The story is set in Scandinavia, in Sweden and Denmark, and the talelikewise probably is of Scandinavian origin. The story is biographical and sets thetone for much of the rest of Old English poetry. It has achieved national epicstatus, on the same level as the Iliad, and is of interest to historians,anthropologists, literary critics, and students the world over.

Other heroic poems includeThe Fight at Finnsburh, a retelling of one ofthe battle scenes inBeowulf(although this relation toBeowulfis much debated),andWaldere, a version of the events of the life ofWalter of Aquitaine, a west

1AS copor abardwas a highly trained poet, composer, singer, and harpist who served as oral historian, political

critic, eulogizer, and entertainer.

2S h erb orn eis an affluent market town in North West Dorset, England. The town was namedscir burneby the

Saxon inhabitants, a name meaningclear stream.It became the capital of Wessex, one of the seven Saxon kingdoms

of England, and King Alfred's elder brothers King Ethelbert and King Ethelbald were buried in its abbey.

3William of Malmesbury(c. 1080/1095 AD– c. 1143 AD) was an English historian of the 12th century, born in

Wiltshire. He spent his whole life in England with his best working years as a monk at Malmesbury Abbey.

Beowulf -SUMMARY

Beowulf(/ˈbeɪ.ɵwʊlf/; inOld Englisheither[ˈbeːo̯wʊlf]or[ˈbeːəwʊlf])[1]is the conventional title of anOld Englishheroicepic poemconsisting of 3182alliterative long lines, set inScandinavia, commonly cited as one of the most important works ofAnglo-Saxon literature. It survives in a single manuscript known as theNowell Codex. Its composition by an anonymousAnglo-Saxonpoet is dated between the 8th[2][3]and the early 11th century.[4]

In the poem,Beowulf, a hero of theGeats, battles three antagonists:Grendel, who has been attacking the resident warriors of themead hallofHroðgar, the king of theDanes;Grendel's mother; and an unnameddragon. The last battle takes place later in life, Beowulf now being king of the Geats. In the final battle, Beowulf is fatally wounded. After his death his retainers bury him in atumulusinGeatland.

Story

Further information:Beowulf (hero)andList of characters and objects in Beowulf

The main protagonist,Beowulf, a hero of theGeats, comes to the aid ofHrothgar, the king of theDanes (Germanic tribe), whose great hall,Heorot, is plagued by the monsterGrendel. Beowulf kills both Grendel andGrendel's mother, the latter with a magical sword.

Later in his life, Beowulf is himself king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by adragonwhose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacks the dragon with the help of histhegns, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon into its lair, atEarnanæs, but only his young Swedish relativeWiglafdares join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded. He is buried in atumulusby the sea.

[edit]As an epic

Further information:Epic poetry

Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poem also beginsin medias res("into the middle of affairs") or simply, "in the middle", which is a characteristic of the epics of antiquity. Although the poem begins with Beowulf's arrival, Grendel's attacks have been going on for some time. The poet who composed Beowulf, while objective in telling the tale, nonetheless utilizes a certain style to maintain excitement and adventure within the story. An elaborate history of characters and their lineages are spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valor.

Structured by battles

Jane Chance (Professor of English,Rice University) in her 1980 article "The Structural Unity of Beowulf: The Problem of Grendel's Mother" argued that there are two standard interpretations of the poem: one view which suggests a two-part structure (i.e., the poem is divided between Beowulf's battles withGrendeland with the dragon) and the other, a three-part structure (this interpretation argues that Beowulf's battle withGrendel's motheris structurally separate from his battle with Grendel).[14]Chance stated that, "this view of the structure as two-part has generally prevailed since its inception inJ. R. R. Tolkien'sBeowulf: The Monsters and the CriticsinProceedings of the British Academy 22(1936)."[14]In contrast, she argued that the three-part structure has become "increasingly popular."[14]

[edit]First battle: Grendel

Beowulf is challenged by a Danish coast guard, Evelyn Paul (1911).

Beowulfbegins with the story of KingHroðgar, who built the great hallHeorotfor his people. In it he, his wifeWealhþeow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, untilGrendel, an outcast from society who is angered by the singing, attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hroðgar's warriors while they sleep. But Grendel dares not touch the throne of Hroðgar, because he is described as protected by a powerful god. Hroðgar and his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot.

Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar.

Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep,Grendelenters the hall and attacks, devouring one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, who bears no weapon as this would be an unfair advantage over the unarmed beast, has been feigning sleep and leaps up to clench Grendel's hand. The two battle until it seems as though the hall might collapse. Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades can not pierce Grendel's skin as he is immune to human weapons. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes to die.

[edit]Second battle: Grendel's mother

The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death, Hroðgar and his men sleep in Heorot.Grendel's motherappears and attacks the hall. She kills Hroðgar's most trusted warrior,Æschere, in revenge for Grendel's death.

Hroðgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword,Hrunting, by a warrior calledUnferth. After stipulating a number of conditions to Hroðgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf dives into the lake. He is swiftly detected and attacked by Grendel's mother. However, she is unable to harm Beowulf through his armour and drags him to the bottom of the lake. In a cavern containing Grendel's body and the remains of men that the two have killed, Grendel's mother and Beowulf engage in fierce combat.

At first, Grendel's mother appears to prevail. Beowulf, finding thatHruntingcannot harm his foe, discards it in fury. Beowulf is again saved from his opponent's attack by his armour and, grasping a mighty sword of the giants from Grendel's mother's armoury (which no other man could have hefted in battle), Beowulf beheads her. Traveling further into the lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse and severs his head. Beowulf then returns to the surface and to his men at the "ninth hour" (l. 1600, "nōn", about 3pm).[15]He returns to Heorot, where Hroðgar gives Beowulf many gifts, including the swordNægling, his family's heirloom.

[edit]Third battle: The dragon

A 1908 depiction of Beowulf fighting the unnamed dragon by J. R. Skelton.

Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in Beowulf's life, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of an unnameddragonatEarnaness. When thedragonsees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but when Beowulf is wounded by the dragon, his warriors run away in fear. Only one of the warriors, a brave young man namedWiglaf, stays to help Beowulf. The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf dies from his wounds.

After he iscremated, Beowulf is buried in Geatland on a cliff overlooking the sea, where sailors are able to see histumulus. The dragon's treasure is buried with him, in accordance with Beowulf's wishes, rather than distributed to his people. There is a curse associated with the hoard and it is also a Germanic and Scandinavian burial practice.

[edit]Structured by funerals

It is widely accepted that there are three funerals inBeowulf.[16]These funerals help to outline changes in the poem’s story as well as the audiences’ views on earthly possessions, battle and glory. The funerals are also paired with the three battles described above.[16]The three funerals share similarities regarding the offerings for the dead and the change in theme through the description of each funeral. Gale Owen-Crocker (Professor of Anglo-Saxon,University of

BEOWULF

Lines 1-300

So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by
and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness.

The narrator opens the poem with a discussion of Shield Sheafson, a great king of the ancient Danes and the founder of their royal line. He began life as a foundling (an infant abandoned by his parents) but quickly rose to be strong and powerful. All of the clans had to pay him tribute, and, when he died, he was honored with an elaborate funeral ceremony. His body was put into a boat, covered with treasures and armor, and cast off to sea. Shield Sheafson’s life ended as it began, with him cast adrift on the water.