Competing Assertions of Sovereignty: WAR and LAW
Wairau ‘Affray’, 1843
Causes
NZ Co. Nelson settlement short of land. Wairau valley, controlled by Te Rauparaha, claimed to have been bought. Surveyors hut burned by Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata .
Consequences
Colonists outraged. Governor Fitzroy finds settlers in wrong. Govt. has nether power nor will to punish Maori offenders. Serious rift between settlers and govt.
Northern War, (March 1845‑January 1846)
Causes
Bay of Islands Maori unhappy about govt. having no money to buy land; whaling ship visits declining; govt. collecting customs duties; capital shifted to Auckland; British law was over‑riding Maori custom e.g Maketu trial and execution in 1842. Incidents of racism and lack of respect for chiefly mana. Belich and Orange have presented Heke's motives as intelligent and reasonable
Result
See Longman pp.27-28 for the course of the war.
Consequences
New governor George Grey claimed victory but he had been compelled to let Heke and Kawiti go free and unpunished. Maori had seen British could be beaten and that the new type of pa that was developed could withstand artillery. British, however, could keep a large army in the field while Maori force was only part time. Maori economic problems and disunity evident.
Wellington (March‑August 1846) and Wanganui (April‑July 1847)
Causes
Disputes over land ownership and control between settlers and some tribal groups with each side aided by Maori support.
Result
Plundering and destruction of property by both sides. No fixed battles, some fighting ‑ inconclusive. Te Rauparaha arrested by Grey. Ended with "rebels" leaving area and British letting them go.
Consequences
Grey proved he would fight if provoked and that he understood how to assert his mana in a way that Maori understood. Maori proved difficult to beat conclusively.
After the relative peace and economic cooperation between Maori and Pakeha in the period 1847-1860, there followed the long and bitter wars of the 1860s. Belich argues that the wars of the 1860s can be grouped into two. Firstly, mass conflict in Taranaki (1860-61) and Waikato (1863-64) in which the principal combatants were the Kingitanga and the British Empire. Secondly, the numerous campaigns of 1864-1872, which involved Maori resisters often following prophets, against colonial soldiers and ‘kupapa’ (Maori fighting on the government side). Sinclair emphasises land as the main issue over which the wars were fought, while Belich emphasises sovereignty.
Taranaki War (March 1860‑March 1861)
Causes
According to Ranginui Walker, settlers in New Plymouth wanted access to Maori owned land to meet their growing needs. NZ Company purchases made from Waikato tribes in absence of Atiawa owners, and a split into majority anti sales, minority pro sales groups was the basis of the dispute. Leading chief Wiremu Kingi (Te Rangitake) was aligned with Kingitanga and opposed all sales. Minor chief Te Teira Manuka offered to sell land in Waitara to Gov. Gore Browne believed that Kingi had no right to stop an owner from selling what he owned and he – and many settlers - saw it as a challenge Crown’s authority. In the resulting battle the British wanted a swift, decisive victory to demonstrate the Crown’s power and undermine and Maori claims to their own sovereignty
Results
British assemble an armed force of 800 (rising to 3500 by 1861). Maori warriors 200‑300 rising to 700‑800. British attack Kingi’s pa at Waitara which was abandoned, as it was designed to be (‘disposable pa’). British claimed that the next battle, at Waireka, as a great victory. Significant Maori victory at Puketakauere. British in crisis. New Plymouth under siege. Disease in settlement rife. Victory for British at Matoetahi after developing concept of sapping (tunnelling) to reduce effectiveness of new pas. Probably 400-800 Kingites fighting in Taranaki at any one time. March 1861 British agreed to ceasefire due to failure to get the decisive victory wanted, plus doubts as to justice of original cause and economic considerations (immigration affected; British government concern re cost for little result)
Consequences
Gore Browne dismissed as Governor, Grey brought back. Taranaki economy ruined. British had failed to get decisive victory. Significant losses by both sides. Kingitanga had gained supporters and mana. White settlers felt more insecure. Question of Maori vs British sovereignty still unresolved.
Waikato War, (July 1863‑April 1864)
Causes
Gore Browne wanted a Waikato invasion to enforce British law and crush Kingitanga. His successor, Grey, followed a policy of peace while preparing for war. Peace: Set up Maori Councils or runanga (under his control) to win co-operation and become ‘Great White Father’ with gifts and flattery. War: Get British govt. to provide enough troops and money for successful invasion. Build and protect road south to the Waikato River. When it became clear that Kingitanga would not accept govt. authority, an excuse for an invasion was sought. Motives for invasion: Grey wanted actual authority over all NZ. Settlers and speculators saw possibilities of land confiscations and the spread of British law; Missionaries saw Maori nationalism (Kingitanga) as an obstacle to their spiritual authority.
Results
Grey assembled armed force (by Jan 1864 = 10000+). Total mobilisation of 14,000–18,000 men. Kingite forces probably maximum of 4000 with 1000‑2000 available at any single time. July 12, 1864 British army invades. Main problem was of protecting supply lines.
See Longman pp.39-41 for course of Waikato wars
Consequences
Kingites had lost much of their territory but still retained their authority over the land they still controlled. British had proved their standing army and resources were able to take even the strongest Maori positions, given time and despite the cost in money and lives. A new border between Kingite and "Queenite" (Crown) territory was set. Grey looked for a new way to challenge the King's power.
Tauranga campaign, (April‑July 1864 )
Causes
Ngai Te Rangi tribe of Tauranga district had been providing Kingites with supplies and warriors. Cameron saw an easier way to strike a blow at the Kingitanga.
Results
200 warriors faced 1700 troops at Gate Pa on 24 April. See Longman p.42 for course of war.
Consequences
Ngai Te Rangi negotiated moderate terms with Grey to end hostilities. This was the last military action against Kingites.
Conclusion
The British can be said to have won the war but not to have achieved all their objectives. The Waikato tribes had lost 1,000,000 acres of land and had 100's of their men killed. Economically the Kingite tribes were devastated and trade had virtually ceased. Disease and food shortages plagued the exiles that had fled to the hill country south of the new aukati line. The King Movement lost the support of some tribes. The British, however, had not had their decisive military victory to prove their superiority and to destroy the Maori ability to resist. The Kingites were still a strong military force. Although some tribes had been punished by massive land confiscations other "rebel" tribes like Ngati Maniopoto were not touched. The Imperial Govt in Britain was unwilling to put more money and men into the war. The fourth line of Maori defence became the armed frontier between two areas of authority. The NZ Govt. could not be said to control the entire North Island until the 1890s.
Pai Marire ‑ Hau Hau, (1864‑1868)
Causes
In 1862 the Taranaki prophet Te Ua Haumene started a new religion – Pai Marire - part traditional, part Christianity. Originally peaceful, it changed after Te Ua's death in 1866. The Maori King, Tawhiao, converted in 1864. Pai Marire spread across the North Island.
Results
Elements of anti Pakeha fanaticism ‑ attacks in Taranaki and Wanganui on white settlers, April-May 1864. Grey and Cameron gathered 3000 troops for campaign in January 1865 from Wanganui. Avoided pa attacks but had a victory in open against Ngati Ruanui. In January‑ February (under Chute) and June‑November 1866 (under McDonnell ) the territory of the South Taranaki tribes was devastated. Local tribes were weakened and intimidated. Murder of missionary Volkner in Opotoki (Bay of Plenty) in March 1865 by Hau Hau led to settler retaliation against Pai Marire- aligned tribal groups. Pai Marire sympathisers suffered severe economic damage. Fighting within tribes over allegiance to Pai Marire led to civil war (between pro/anti- Pai Marire Maori) on the East Coast.
Consequences
Pro-Pai Marire factions within tribes were economically disadvantaged, if not devastated. Depopulation, starvation and misery followed defeat. The Imperial government tired of supporting Grey's fight against Maori expressions of sovereignty and first withdrew its troops (May 1867) and then him. Bowen replaced Grey. Kupapa Maori became important parts of colonial forces. Resistance in this period was uncoordinated.
Titokowaru, 1868‑1869
Causes
Land in Southern Taranaki had been confiscated by the government. Local Maori were desperate but could not afford more war. Titokowaru and others followed passive resistance. New settlers moved in protected by colonial forces. In June 1868 three settlers were killed.
Results
Colonial government fielded 770 settler militia, 150 kupapa Maori. Titokowaru commanded 80 men. Battles and raids saw the desertion by settlers of much of the land that had been confiscated. An attack by the militia on a prepared position at Moturoa in November was another disaster (50‑60 militia dead to 1 Maori). Titokowaru controlled most of Southern Taranaki and his support-base began to grow rapidly. The Kingitanga even considered re-entering the war. Government fears of an uprising in the North Island and total defeat grew (British troops had been withdrawn). Strangely, in early 1869, most of Titokowaru’s support, including Kingite, fell away due to, it seems, an unforgivable breach of protocol (possibly sleeping with the wife of one of his men). By April all fighting stopped. Titokowaru stayed free, armed and untouched. Settlers, however, reoccupied all his conquests.
Consequences
Titokowaru's successes and the militia’s failure to beat him in battle led to a crisis in the NZ govt when it appeared that the colony could not defend itself. His war was at the same time as Te Kooti's and together they threatened to widen into a larger conflict involving the Kingites and other tribes. Much of the North Island became an armed frontier with settlers only really safe in armed settlements. Yet by the 1870s both Titokowaru and Te Kooti were no longer viable threats and, although free, were without serious support.
Te Kooti, 1868 ‑1870s
Causes
Te Kooti Rikirangi fought as a kupapa but was arrested as spy for the Hau Hau. Imprisoned without trial on the Chatham Islands in March 1866 with 160 "rebels", he became their leader after having a religious vision and founding the new faith, Ringatu. The group escaped from the Chathams in July 1868.
Results
As Te Kooti led his group from the coast to inland safety three Govt columns of troops followed him. Three engagements in July led to losses on both sides but overall Te Kooti lost least and made it to his destination pa at Puketapu. Te Kooti tried to enlist Maori support for a war against the pakeha by sending messengers all over the East Coast and to the King movement. He received little material support but was joined by 100 warriors. He now had 250 men. He left the pa and attacked the Poverty Bay settlements on November 9th. Fifty men, women and children were killed with no Ringatu losses. 300 local Maori were taken prisoner with 20‑40 executed. After a series of raids Te Kooti was constantly hunted by troops and kupapa for three years. His support gradually melted away as he was forced to retreat further inland. He was pardoned in 1883 as part of the government's move to open up the King country. He died in 1893.
Consequences
With Te Kooti ‘retired’ in the King country the NZ wars were over. Maori were to a large extent in a state of despair, demoralisation and apathy. No longer would they try to hold on to what they had by force. The Land Court saw much of what land they had left sold or leased to Pakeha. The Kingitanga maintained independence until at least 1890, encompassing 7000 square miles under its control. By the end of the century Maori independence as a reality was gone.
ANALYSIS OF THE NEW ZEALAND WARS
The wars of the 1840s firmed up the boundaries between Maori and Pakeha spheres, and set limits on their interference with each other. It was acknowledged by the Governors that British law didn't extend beyond ‘their’ sphere (ie 80% of North Island was a ‘Maori’ zone). Between 1847 and 1860 two spheres co-existed mostly peacefully despite tensions at the interface. A fair degree of co-operation between Maori and Pakeha spheres existed (especially trade.) But by the 1860s co-operation collapsed into conflict: the long and bitter wars of the 1860s.
The issues of sovereignty, of access to land, Pakeha ‘economic jealousy’ of Maori, and of religion all caused war between Maori and Pakeha in the 19th Century. The Northern War, the campaigns in Taranaki 1864-66, and the Taranaki and Waikato Wars were mainly caused by conflict over sovereignty between Maori and Pakeha. The issue of access to land was a fundamental factor contributing to the Taranaki and Waikato Wars as well as Titokowaru’s Wars. Finally, religion as a focus for protest was the force behind the Pai Marire/Hauhau rebellions on the West Coast, and especially on the East Coast. This was also one of the main forces behind Te Kooti’s campaign.
Maori-Pakeha competition also contributed to the conflict. When the Victorian slump of the mid-1850s brought agricultural prices down, Maori agricultural production was hard hit. Competition between Maori and Pakeha began to develop on the basis of who owned the land rather than who could supply the markets. Belich argues that Pakeha were ‘economically jealous’ of Maori. Maori and Pakeha also competed over whose authority was paramount. When Pakeha settlers were out-numbered by Maori, British law was only effective within the main areas. By the late 1850s, Pakeha settlers were beginning to out-number Maori, and the demand to have Maori chiefs stripped of their power increased.
Sinclair has noted the harmful effects of Grey’s ‘stop-start’ policy towards the Kingitanga. This involved the distribution of goods and favours (‘Flour and Sugar’ policy – Long p.32) to Maori chiefs. Grey ruled in a very personal manner. When he was no longer governor, the organisation of native administration came to an abrupt halt. Grey’s ‘Flour and Sugar’ policy did little to provide solutions for the problems of a rapidly declining Maori population, social disruption, and poverty.