IMPERIALISM Can Be Described As the Process by Which a Political State Expands Its Rule

Beyond Books 4

The New Imperialism

IMPERIALISM can be described as the process by which a political state expands its rule and influence over other lands. The term "NEW IMPERIALISM" is used to distinguish 19th-century imperial activities from those of the 15th and 16th centuries, the first period of active European exploration and exploitation of new lands.

19th-century European imperialism had three main forms. First, COLONIZATION involved the actual peopling of territory, extending a country's demographic reach and presence to distant lands. A good example is Britain's settlement of Australia and New Zealand in the mid- to late-1800s. Second, COLONIALISM involved more of an administrative and/or military occupation, with little accompanying interest in settlement. The British occupation of India is a prime example. Third, imperialism also involved the declaration of influence within a certain sphere, a form of "informal" imperialism. This form was based on the threat of power rather than the actual demonstration of power. China presents the best example of Imperialism in this form.

The principal imperial powers of the late 19th century were Britain, Russia, France, Germany, the United States, Belgium, and Japan. In a relatively short period of time, these seven nations assumed political, military, or economic control of more than 560 million people, about one-third of the world's population, and roughly half the surface of the earth.

How did this happen, and how did it happen so quickly?

A variety of factors and forces were at work. Greedy rulers like KING LEOPOLD OF BELGIUM created the CONGO FREE STATE as his personal property. Capitalists sought new markets and new resources, especially in times of domestic economic crises. Governments sold the notion of glory of empire to get people to forget about domestic problems. The English and the French in particular were good at marketing the idea of empire. Missionaries also desired to spread their faiths to new lands.

The forces of nationalism and industrialization also had great impact on imperialism. The late 1800s in Europe saw the consolidation of state power and the growth of huge corporations. Nation-states began to use influence or force to facilitate economic expansion around the world and to protect valuable sources of commodities like rubber and oil, in part because economic success had become connected to issues of national security. In Asia, European governments increasingly used their military power to open new trading markets by force. The Opium War and the Boxer Rebellion, to cite two examples, resulted.

In the early years of imperialism, Europeans conceived of a "civilizing mission," a moral mission, to help raise non-whites and non-industrial peoples to greater spiritual heights. Social Darwinism, a social philosophy adapted from Darwin's theory of natural selection, began to circulate as an explanation and justification for imperialism. But the "civilizing mission" quickly became "the white man's burden," and the result was that racism became institutionalized.

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How could Europe dominate so much of the world? Important technology developments facilitated Europeans' conquest of Africa. Steamboats opened up the interior to European invaders, creating what has been called the "age of gunboat imperialism." But early attempts at inland exploration typically failed because of malaria, which wiped out most expeditions. The discovery of quinine made interior travel safe. And once in the interior, superior weaponry allowed imperial governments to establish military control of vast regions.

Was European imperialism a positive force that brought a higher standard of living to less developed areas? Or was it a greedy land grab that exploited the people and resources of distant lands to improve the colonial power? Critics such as Joseph Conrad began to write disapprovingly of European imperialism, asking an interesting question: who was the real savage?

Study Questions

1. What did we call the imperial activities from the 15th and 16th centuries?

2. Which nations were the primary imperialistic powers in the 19th century?

3. How was imperialism different in the 19th century than it was in the 15th and 16th century?

4. Why did the Europeans feel they were doing the “less civilized” a favor?

5. Who was the real savage?