Commas make writing clearer by separating words, ideas, and other elements in sentences. In a series of three or more items, use a comma after every item except the last one. Use commas before two or more adjectives that modify the same noun (excluding numbers, size, shape, and age). Use a comma after an introductory word or mild interjection at the beginning of a sentence. Use a comma after an intro prepositional phrase that contains one or more additional prepositional phrases. Use a comma after a verbal phrase at eh beginning of a sentence. Use a comma after an intro adverb or adverb clause at the begging of a sentence. Use commas to set off a parenthetical expression and to set off words of direct address.

Example: When you get home, mom wants you to do the following: clean your room, vacuum it, and take out the trash.

There are many uses for commas. They are used to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases. Use commas to set off nonessential appositives. Remember, setting a phrase off with commas means that it can be removed from the sentence without the meaning of the sentence changing.

Example: Underwater basket weaving, sometimes called advanced basket weaving because you have to do two things at once, is not taught at this school.

Example: Those students who are going on the field trip to the state corrections facility need to bring a signed permission form by Friday.

Use a comma to set off the explanatory words of a direct quotation. Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction that joins the two independent clauses of a compound sentence. In dates, use commas to separate the day of the month from the year. Use a comma to separate the name of a city or town and the name of its state, province, or country. Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the closing of a business and a friendly letter.

Example: "Go away," he said.

Example: On January 7, 2012, I will be ready to retire, and my wife will want to travel the world.

Example: Mobile, Alabama is the city by the bay.

Use commas to separate words that might be misunderstood when they are read (before the conjunction but or for when it may be mistaken for a preposition, after an intro adverb that could be mistaken for a preposition, after a short intro verbal phrase to separate it from the noun that follows it, and to separate repeated words).

Example: They were grateful, for the man had saved them.

Example: Inside, the car was ruined.

Example: While rocking, the boat almost capsized.

Example: What he is, is a big liar.

Use commas to indicate the words left out of parallel word groups, or word groups that repeat the same structure. In numbers of more than three digits, use a comma after every third digit from the right. ZIP codes, phone numbers, years, and house numbers are the exceptions to this rule. Use a comma between a personal name and an abbreviation that follows it, such as Jr., Sr., or M.D. Also use a comma between a business name and an abbreviation such as Inc.

Example: The teacher was tired: the students, well rested.

Example: Captain, a thick, dark fog is encircling the bridge.

Example: Surely, he saw the check on the table; yes, he must have.

Revise the following sentences for errors in comma usage.

  1. If you cannot take the heat get out of the kitchen.
  1. No you do not have the right to take scissors without asking.
  1. To do well you have to get a good night's rest, and she in my opinion isn't doing that.
  1. In the house near the bridge over First Street in Mobile there is man that can help you.
  1. To survive at such depths is very difficult.

Example: I live at 500 Oakmont Street, Saraland, Alabama36571.

Example: There are probably 3,000 people named John Smith, Jr. that work for Mattel, Inc.

Revise the following for errors in comma usage. Some may be correct.

  1. She's Canadian and she's from Bancroft OntarioCanada.
  1. "You need to shut your mouth!" Mom said.
  1. I closed the letter by saying, "Sincerely, Jackson."
  1. She was annoying to everyone; he pleasing.
  1. Above birds circled.
  1. Huber H. Parker Jr. is the man that takes care of my teeth and he is kind of expensive.
  1. November 31 1900 doesn't exist November only has thirty days.

Semicolons & Colons

A semicolon (;) is used to separate complete sentences that are closely related or to separate items in a series that contain internal punctuation.

Independent Clauses
Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses that are not joined with a coordinating conjunction.
Incorrect: Angela was distressed over having to write a term paper; so she asked for extra help.
Correct: Angela was distressed over having to write a term paper; she asked for extra help.
Conjunctive Adverbs and Transitional Expressions
Use a semicolon between sentences that are joined with a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression. The semicolon is placed before the transitional expression; a comma is placed after the transitional expression.
Incorrect: He is going to the play, however, he must leave early.
Correct: He is going to the play; however, he must leave early.
Incorrect: A recent study shows that bottled water is not as healthy for us as we may think, in fact, it may be no more safe than regular tap water.
Correct: A recent study shows that bottled water is not as healthy for us as we may think; in fact, it may be no more safe than regular tap water.
Common Conjunctive Adverbs
accordingly / finally / likewise / similarly
also / furthermore / meanwhile / specifically
anyway / hence / moreover / still
besides / however / nevertheless / subsequently
certainly / incidentally / next / then
consequently / indeed / nonetheless / therefore
conversely / instead / otherwise / thus
Common Transitional Phrases
after all / even so / in fact
as a matter of fact / for example / in other words
as a result / for instance / in the first place
at any rate / in addition / on the contrary
at the same time / in conclusion / on the other hand
Items in a Series with Internal Punctuation
Use a semicolon between items in a series that contain internal punctuation.
Incorrect: For her anniversary celebration, she purchased a pair of shoes with ankle straps, an open toe, and high heels, a short black dress with rhinestone buttons, and a small black purse made of silk, satin, and rhinestones.
Correct: For her anniversary celebration, she purchased a pair of shoes with ankle straps, an open toe, and high heels; a short black dress with rhinestone buttons; and a small black purse made of silk, satin, and rhinestones.

The colon (:) is mainly used to call attention to words that follow it.

Lists, Appositives, and Quotations
Use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to a list, an appositive, or a quotation.
Incorrect: Before going on our trip we must purchase the following, a sleeping bag, a tent, and a survival kit. (List)
Correct: Before going on our trip we must purchase the following: a sleeping bag, a tent, and a survival kit.
Incorrect: The class was happy to report on their project an exploration of the role of inertia in everyday life. (Appositive)
Correct: The class was happy to report on their project: an exploration of the role of inertia in everyday life.
Incorrect: As responsible citizens, we should try to live by the words of John F. Kennedy "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." (Quotation)
Correct: As responsible citizens, we should try to live by the words of John F. Kennedy: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."
Independent Clauses
Use a colon between independent clauses if the second summarizes or explains the first. This use is rare.
Example: Her beauty captivated everyone she encountered: It was internal as well as external.

Example Questions:

13. Choose the sentence that CORRECTLY uses COLONS and/or SEMICOLONS.

  1. The kinds of fiction in which justice prevails include these: fairy tales, Westerns, and detective stories.
  2. 6:40 A.M.
  3. Exodus 3:4
  4. All of the above

14. Choose the sentence that CORRECTLY uses COLONS and/or SEMICOLONS.

  1. I don't mind the bright green kitchen walls myself still; shoudn't we ask your mother?
  2. I don't mind the bright green kitchen walls myself; still, shouldn't we ask your mother?
  3. I don't mind the bright green kitchen walls; myself, still shouldn't we ask your mother?
  4. I don't mind the bright green kitchen walls myself still shouldn't; we ask your mother?

15. Choose the sentence that CORRECTLY uses COLONS and/or SEMICOLONS.

  1. Meteorology is fascinating to me; I watch the Weather Channel every day.
  2. Meteorology is fascinating; to me I watch the Weather Channel every day.
  3. Both A and B
  4. Neither A nor B

16. Which of the following sentences CORRECTLY uses the COLON/SEMICOLON?

  1. We left the birthday party: we went shopping.
  2. Be sure to pack the following; sunscreen: beach ball: and swimsuit.
  3. The pastor read a passage from Luke: 6; 15.
  4. Dear Mr. Estevas:

17. Which of the following sentences demonstrates the correct use of the semicolon?

  1. The winners are first place, Rachel; second place, Wilma; and third place, Hope.
  2. The new officers are president; Carl; vice-president; Jill; and secretary; Maria.
  3. The actors are talented; but the plot is missing something.
  4. Before you forget; give me Lynn's phone number.

Parallelism

Parallelism means making similar parts of a sentence equal or parallel in structure.

Pairs and Lists
Pairs and lists should be parallel in structure.
Incorrect: He packed the children's clothes, gathered her bags together, and was finishing the last chores that needed to be done.
Correct: He packed the children's clothes, gathered her bags together, and finished the last chores that needed to be done.
Incorrect: You can purchase that item on the Internet, from the catalog, and by going to the store.
Correct: You can purchase that item on the Internet, from the catalog, and at the store.
Comparisons
Items being compared in a sentence should be parallel in structure.
Incorrect: To buy furniture makes more economical sense than renting it.
Correct:
  • To buy furniture makes more economical sense than to rent it.
  • Buying furniture makes more economical sense than renting it.

Incorrect: Watching a movie at home is just as fun as to see one at the theater.
Correct:
  • Watching a movie at home is just as fun as seeing one at the theater. OR
  • To watch a movie at home is just as fun as to see one at the theater.

Correlative Conjunctions
When a sentence contains certain correlative conjunctions, words that are always paired together, the items joined by them must be parallel in structure. These correlative conjunctions are as follows: both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also, rather . . . than.
Incorrect: Tennessee William's play A Streetcar Named Desire portrays not only realism but it also is tragic.
Correct: Tennessee William's play A Streetcar Named Desire portrays not only realism but also tragedy.
Incorrect: It seems that she would rather tell a lie than facing the truth.
Correct: It seems that she would rather tell a lie than face the truth

Practice Sentences: Revise for errors in parallelism if necessary.

18. Pele' was the best at scoring, passing, and winning.

19. When you come over this weekend, we will recognize your talent, grace, and gtetting along with others at the expense of losing your ideas toothers.

20. I always like playing golf more than to watch it on TV.

21. I knew that he like to hurt people's feelings and that he like to be an all-around jerk.

22. Galloping around the stage with skill and carefully, he looked every bit the cowboy.

Example Questions:

23. Choose the sentence that has correct PARALLEL STRUCTURE.

A.Soon after the teacher assigned the paper, the student began studying and to research her topic

B.Soon after the teacher assigned the paper, the student began study and to research her topic.

C.Soon after the teacher assigned the paper, the student began studying and researching her topic.

D.Soon after the teacher assigned the paper, the student began to study and researching her topic.

24. Choose the sentence that has correct PARALLEL STRUCTURE.

A.While I was driving to school, I checked my watch and noticed that I was very late for class.

B.While I was driving to school, I was checking my watch and noticed that I was very late for class.

C.While I drove to school, I checked my watch and noticing that I was very late for class.

D.While I was driving to school, I checked my watch and noticing that I was very late for class.

25. Choose the sentence that has correct PARALLEL STRUCTURE.

A.Planning a party can be both exhilarating and it can be frustrate you.

B.Planning a party can be both exhilarating and frustrating.

C.Planning a party can be both exhilarating and it can be frustrating.

D.Planning a party can be both exhilarating and also frustrating at the same time.

26. Choose the sentence that is NOT PARALLEL in STRUCTURE.

A.A train trip is not as fast as taking an airplane.

B.Before this party, Jenna must make the guest list, buy the gifts, and the baking of the cookies must be done.

C.She can either take the plane to the nearest city or waiting for the next one is a possibility.

D.We are planning to have dinner, seeing a movie, and going out for ice cream.

27. Choose the sentence that is NOT PARALLEL in STRUCTURE.

A.According to the survey, the office workers think that he is not only a demanding boss but also unappreciative.

B.To admit the truth is far nobler than to be a liar.

C.The jury deliberated over the case, argued with each other passionately, and they decided they could not reach a decision

D.All are parallel

Misplaced & Dangling Modifiers

There are two types of common errors related to modifier usage. These are the dangling modifier and the misplaced modifier. For a dangling modifier, you must add a word to modify because there is no word to modify. Misplaced modifiers must be placed closer to the word they modify in order to make sense, but in this case, nothing must be added because the word in already in the sentence.

Misplaced: We read about the crooks that were caught in the newspaper.

Correct: We readin the newspaper about the crooks that were caught.

Dangling: Joggin in the park, the rabbit peered out from the underbrush.

Correct: Jogging in the park, I saw a rabbit peering out from the underbrush.

Practice Sentences: Revise the following errors in modifier usage. Some may be correct.

28. While lighting the birthday candles, the cake began to crumble.

29. Lost in the jungle for three weeks, the small village was a more than welcome sight.

30. My cousin's dog was chasing the geese, yapping and barking.

31. We adopted one of the beagle puppies born eight weeks ago.

32. Michiko went outside to trim the trees with Uncle Saburo.

Exercise Questions:

33. Choose the sentence that contains ERRORS in modifier usage.

  1. We read about the crooks who were caught in the newspaper.
  2. The men on TV look smaller than they do in real life
  3. People who know how to cook are very valuable.
  4. None of the above.

34. Choose the sentence that contains NO ERRORS in modifier usage.

  1. While standing in my yard, my brother's car drove by.
  2. Running down the hall, my sneakers were loud.
  3. Both contain errors.
  4. Neither contain errors.

35. Which of the following type of errors DOES NOT deal with modifiers?

  1. misplaced modifiersC. confused modifiers
  2. dangling modifiersD. none of the above

Identifying Supporting Ideas

If you do not support our main idea, readers my not take your idea seriously and may not even understand what you are trying to say. To develop the main idea of a paragraph clearly, include details that support or explain the main idea. Supporting details, examples, anecdotes, facts, and statistics, and quotations. Stray ideas and details-those unrealted to the paragrpah's main idea-need to be edited out of the following paragraph.

Main Ideas

The main idea of a paragraph is a single thought that serves as the paragraph's focus. All the sentences in this paragraph relate to this idea. A topic sentence is a direct statement of the main idea of a paragraph. Although a topic sentence can appear anywhere in a paragraph, it is often located at or near the beginning. In a research paper, the topic sentence is called a thesis sentence, and it usually is the last sentence of the first paragraph.

A summary is a restatement in condensed form of the main points of a passage. It should be shorter than the original wwork and should include a sentence for each key point of the work it summarizes.