AKC 2 General – Spring Term 2009 – Dead or Alive: the search for God inside and outside the Church 26/01/09

AKC 2 - 26 JANUARY 2009

THE GOD OF ISRAEL: ONE GOD, MULTIPLE PERCEPTIONS

DR DIANA LIPTON, DEPT OF THEOLOGY AND RELIGIOUS STUDIES, KCL

Jewish ways of thinking about God:

(1)Jewish identity is hugely complex. From the Babylonian Exile onwards, Jews and Judaism could be defined nationally, ethnically, or religiously, or a combination of all three. It is therefore possible to be a Jew without any belief or practice, and in this respect it differs from Christianity and Islam. A Jew must have a Jewish mother (or in some movements now, father), or have converted to Judaism through a recognised authority. Like all religions, and maybe more than most, Judaism has huge variety, many voices, and therefore multiple perceptions of God and all other subjects.

(2)Hebrew Bible (10th to 4th century BCE). Most of the HB (Old Testament) cannot be called Jewish or relating to Judaism. These terms begin to apply in the Babylonian Exile (597-539BCE). But HB is the main source for Jewish perceptions of God: God acts in History (he brought Israel out of Egypt, is involved in human affairs on personal, national and international); demands absolute fidelity; is like a father (sometimes mother); husband; warrior; king. Man is in God’s image, but God cannot be seen. God revealed the terms and conditions of his contractual agreement with Israel as a Law code; keeping the law is a form of worship. God has a temple in Jerusalem and is worshipped there via priests. HB treats God almost like a character in a story – features constantly, but is not analysed philosophically or theologically. His existence is assumed and not questioned, and therefore belief in him is not explicitly demanded. Job comes closest by questioning God’s justice(human suffering, evil).

(3)Mishnah (a law code, halakhah [lit. ‘way’] governing all aspects of life, early 3rd century CE, Palestine). Attention shifts from God as a character to how best to keep the terms and conditions of his law code – the Torah. Law, and the study of law, is still more central after the Roman destruction of the Temple and the end of the priests. God’s existence remains assumed, but beliefs (as opposed to actions, obedience, love – things we might expect in relation to human beings) relating to him are now demanded. This text became central for all future discussions:

All Israel has a portion in the World to Come, for it is written: Your people are all righteous; they shall inherit the Land forever, the branch of My planting, the work of My hands, so that I may be glorified (Isa 60:22). However, the following have no portion therein: he who maintains that resurrection cannot be proved from the Torah, [one who maintains that] the Torah was not divinely revealed [no Torah from Heaven], and an Epicurean [a heretic]. Mishnah Sanhedrin 3.10

(4)Babylonian Talmud (5th-7th century CE, Babylon, an expansive multi-voiced commentary on the Mishnah). Contains law and also narratives, which treat God as a character, assuming his existence. They focus on his involvement in human affairs and how best to respond to it, especially in relation to law. Here follows an important and much discussed story on this theme:

And this was the oven of 'Akhnai’. Why [the oven of] 'Akhnai? — Said Rab Judah in Samuel's name: [It means] that they encompassed it with arguments as a snake, and proved it unclean. It has been taught: On that day R. Eliezer brought forward every imaginable argument, but they did not accept them. Said he to them: 'If the halakhah agrees with me, let this carob-tree prove it!' Thereupon the carob-tree was torn a hundred cubits out of its place — others say, four hundred cubits. 'No proof can be brought from a carob-tree,' they retorted. Again he said to them: 'If the halakhah agrees with me, let the stream of water prove it!' Whereupon the stream of water flowed backwards — 'No proof can be brought from a stream of water,' they rejoined. Again he urged: 'If the halakhah agrees with me, let the walls of the schoolhouse prove it,' whereupon the walls inclined to fall. But R. Joshua rebuked them, saying: 'When scholars are engaged in a halakhic dispute, what is it to you?' Hence they did not fall, in honour of R. Joshua, nor did they resume the upright, in honour of R. Eliezer; and they are still standing thus inclined. Again he said to them: 'If the halakhah agrees with me, let it be proved from Heaven!' Whereupon a Heavenly Voice cried out: 'Why do you dispute with R. Eliezer, seeing that in all matters the halakhah agrees with him!' But R. Joshua arose and exclaimed: 'It is not in heaven.'What did he mean by this? — Said R. Jeremiah: Given that the Torah had already been given at Mount Sinai; we pay no attention to a Heavenly Voice, because you long ago wrote in the Torah at Mount Sinai, After the majority must one incline. R. Nathan met Elijah and asked him: What did the Holy One, Blessed be He, do in that hour? — He laughed [with joy], he replied, saying, 'My sons have defeated Me, My sons have defeated Me.' (Babylonian Talmud, Baba Metzia 59b)

(5)Midrash (multi-voiced commentary on the HB; a genre, not a closed text, flourished especially 2nd to 6th centuries BCE, but continues). Midrash does do theology, usually in the form of stories and parables, but the focus remains God’s justice, his love for Israel; his active involvement in the world. God’s existence is not questioned and acceptance of it is assumed – belief is not explicitly demanded. See my 13 October AKC handout on rabbinic interpretation for examples.

(6)Moses Maimonides (philosopher, lawyer, doctor, astronomer, b. Spain 1135 CE, d. Egypt, 1204, wrote in Hebrew and Arabic). He articulated Thirteen Principles (perhaps responding to the pillars of Islam), commenting on Mishnah Sanhedrin 10.1 (above). 1. God exists; 2. He is One; 3. He has no shape or form; 4. He is eternal; 5. He alone must be worshipped; 6. He was revealed through prophets; 7. Moses is unique among prophets; 8. God’s Law was given on Sinai; 9. God’s Law will not change; 10. God has foreknowledge of human affairs; 11. Evil is punished; 12. A messiah will come; 13. The dead will be resurrected. These were incorporated into Jewish liturgy (a hymn called Yigdal), but did not become central.

(7)Jewish theology developed mainly in the 19thCentury as a response to Christian theology. It did not become central for ‘ordinary Jews’. In sermons, e.g., rabbis typically focus on interpreting Torah and how it relates to the world, not God’s existence. However, beliefs relating to God moved to the foreground in the UK in the 1960s, when Rabbi Louis Jacobs, an Orthodox rabbi, questioned a literal understanding of Torah from Heaven [divinely revealed Law]. He was excluded from the UK’s main Orthodox movement, and founded Masorti [tradition], based on Orthopraxy [traditional practice], not Orthodoxy [traditional belief]. Jews avoid for the most part questioning other Jews about their beliefs, but a Jew who makes public a lack of acceptance of core Jewish principles might be excluded in certain Orthodox contexts (e.g., as a legal witness, or a member of a minyan [prayer quorum]).

(8)Post-Holocaust Theology. Jews responded differently to the Shoah, some turning away from Judaism, others become much more religiously observant. God’s existence became for almost the first time a matter for serious discussion. A story attributed to Elie Wiesel sums up one response: Jewish inmates in a Second World War concentration camp decided to put God on trial for abandoning them. They debated all night, and, just before sunrise, found God guilty. They turned to each other and said, Time for morning prayers.

Further reading:

Jacobs, Louis, Beyond Reasonable Doubt (Littman, 1999).

Kellner, Menachem, Must a Jew Believe Anything? (Littman, 1999)

Kessler, Edward, What Do Jews Believe? The Customs and Culture of Modern Judaism (Walker 2007).

Shapiro, Marc, The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised (Littman, 2003)
Shulweis, Harold, For those who can’t believe: Overcoming the obstacles to faith (Harper Collins, 1994)

Full details about the AKC course, copies of the handouts, and the Discussion Board can be found on the AKC website: If you have any queries please contact the AKC Course Administrator (ext 2333 or email ).

You must register for the course, using the form on the website, before registering for the exam.

EXAM REGISTRATION has opened. Please reply to the email you have received giving your full name and student ID number to indicate you want to take the exam BY FRIDAY 27 FEBRUARY.

Please note the AKC Exam is on Friday 27 March 2009 between 14.30 and 16.30.