“AreFallaciesCommon?ALookatTwoDebates”firstappearedinInformalLogic,Vol.VIII,No. 2, Spring1987,pp. 81-92.
The last decadehasseenahealthydebateregardingthenatureoffallacies.The"standardtextbookaccount"hasbeencriticizedextensively,andnewtheoreticalapproacheshavebeentried,centeringaroundtheformaltheoryofdialogues.Thedebatehastakenonnew
importancesincetherecentwidespreadadoptionof"criticalthinking"requirementsatmanycolleges.
Oneaspectofthestandardtextbookaccountthathasdrawnconsiderablecriticismistheclaimthatfallaciesare"commonlymade"errorsinreasoning.Suchaclaimhasstrucksomescholarsasanexaggerationorasperhapsmerelyamotivationalremarktoinducethestudenttostudyharder.Finocchiarohas put this criticismwithspecialsharpness:
Whatiswrongwithsuchaccountsoffallacies?Oneproblemconcernsthepaucityofactualexamples,justmentioned.Itisinfactpuzzlingthatlogictextbooksshouldn'tbeabletocomeupwithmoreexamplesoffallaciesactuallycommittedgiventhatfallaciesaresupposedtobecommonerrorsinreasoning.Onegetsthesuspicionthatlogicallyincorrectargumentsarenotthatcommoninpractice,thattheirexistencemaybelargelyrestricted to logic textbook examplesand exercises.[1]
He concludes:
TheconclusionIwishtodrawfromsuch"consultations"isnotthaterrorsinreasoningareprobablynotcommoninreallife,butthatthereprobablyarenocommonerrorsinreasoning.Thatis,logicallyincorrectargumentsmaybecommon,butcommontypesoflogicallyincorrectarguments probablyarenot.[2]
InthisarticleIwishtogiveempiricalevidencethatfallaciesareindeedcommon—wherebytheterm"fallacy"Imeanthesortoferrorsinargumentationlabeledinstandardlogictexts. Whetherthestandarddefinitionsshouldbealteredorclarified bymeansofformaldialecticis a questionIwon'taddresshere.
Itwouldbewisetogetclearonwhattheclaim"fallaciesarecommon"reallyinvolves.Clearly,nobodymeanstosuggestthatfallaciesoccurcommonlyinallaspectsofourdaily lives.Mostofthewakinghoursofmostpeoplearespentonentertainment,transportation,recreationandsoon.Fallaciesaren'tcommoninsuchactivities,forthetrivialreasonthatnoargumentation—badorgood—takesplaceinthoseactivities.Ifwearetofairlytesttheclaimthatfallaciesare common, wemust focus on contexts of argumentative persuasion.
Intherealmofliterature,focusinguponcontextsofargumentativepersuasiongenerallyrulesoutfictionandagooddealofnon-fictionaswell.Afterall,mostmainstreamnewspaperstendtosimply describeevents,exceptintheOp/Edpages.Quiteabitofnonfictionisdevotedtosimplyexplainingcurrent developments in, say,science or art.
Whatthenareclearcontextsofargumentativepersuasion?Thereader'slistmaydifferfrommine,butIwouldinclude:advertisements,editorials,positionpapers,essays,letterstoeditors,debates,aswellasbooksandarticlesthatadvocatesomeposition.Itisthosesortsofcontexts to which the claimthatfallacies arecommon is meant to apply.
Itiseasytogettheimpressionthatfallaciesareuncommonifonereadsscientificorphilosophicjournalsorbooks.Suchliteratureisbyitsverynaturecloselyreasoned.Eveniffallaciesarenotcommonlypresentinsuchwritings,thatdoesn'tmeanthatfallaciesarenotcommon;rather,itonlyshowsthatcarefulthinkerscanavoidwhatareotherwiseerrorsinreasoning.Indeed,thoseofuswhoteachthestandardmaterialhopethateventuallythosefallacieswill becomeuncommon preciselybecause people willbecome more careful thinkers.
Butitisequallyeasytogettheimpressionthatnotonlyarefallaciescommon,butnon-fallaciousreasoningisuncommon,ifonereadsthetabloids.TheNationalEnquireristhebestsellingnewspaperintheU.S.A.,anditsnumerousclonesalsosellwell.Thetypicalissueofsuchatabloidisloadedwithfallaciesofthetraditionalsort:adswhichappealtopopularsentimentorcontainfallaciousappealstoauthority("thisdietisdoctor-tested!");editorialsfilledwithinvective,personalattacksandloadedlanguage;ambiguousheadlinesintendedtomakeuninterestingstoriesinteresting("NUNWALKSHUNDREDSOFMILES--TOLOSEWEIGHT!"screamstheheadline,whilethestorydescribesaperfectlybanalcaseofanunwhowalksseveralblockseveryeveningforexercise,andovertheyearsitaddsuptohundredsofmiles);adswith keyclauses put in fine print("accent");and so on.
However,iftheclaimthatfallaciesarecommonistobefairlytested,weoughttoavoidextremes—contextseitherespecially"clean"orespecially"dirty."Iftheclaimthatfallaciesarecommonistakenfairly, itclearlyismeanttoapplytoordinarycontextsofargumentativepersuasion:opinioneditorialsingoodqualitynewspapersandnewsmagazines;letterstotheeditorofgoodqualitynewspapers,newsmagazines,politicalopinionjournals(suchasNationalReview,NewRepublic,Atlantic,andsoon),andothernonfictionmagazines(suchasByte,Carand Driver,and so on); political debates; position papers;and so on.
Iproposetoempiricallyinvestigatetheclaimthatfallaciesascommonlydefinedarecommonbyselectingafaircontextofargumentativepersuasion,onethatisclearlyofinfluenceontheopinionsofmillionsofAmericans:politicaldebates.PoliticaldebatesarequitecommoninAmericanpoliticallife.OnethinksimmediatelyofclassicaldebatessuchastheonesbetweenLincolnandDouglas,butofcoursesuchdebateshavehadevenwiderimpactsincebeingtelevised(startingwiththeNixon/Kennedydebates,thenmovingontotheCarter/Ford,thenCarter/Reagan,thenReagan/Mondaledebates).Tomakethisinvestigationmoreuseful,wewilllookattwodebates,separatedwidelyintimebutsimilarinimportance:the thirdKennedy/Nixondebate(heldonOctober13,1960)andthesecondReagan/Mondaledebate(heldonOctober21,
1984).Bothdebateswereveryimportantintherespectiveelections;indeed,bothresultedinturnaroundsinthepollsforthecandidateswhoeventuallywontheirrespectiveraces.Inwhatfollows,Iwillselectfallaciesfailingincertainrecurringcategoriesforcommentary,ratherthanreproducingthewhole debates. While each debatehasbetween fortyand fiftyreadilyidentifiablestandardfallacies,Ihavetriedtoselectthemostinstructiveforanalysis.Ifthereadersuspectsmeofhavingbeenbiasedinmyselection,Iamwillingtosendhimtranscriptsofbothdebateswith the numerousfallaciesindicated.
Fallacies of Ignoring the Issue
Inexaminingthetextsofthetwodebates,oneisimmediatelystruckby thelargenumberof times in which the candidatesignore the issue.Some examples:
Mr.Nixon:Now,lookingtotheU-2flights,IwouldliketopointoutthatIhavebeensupportingthePresident'spositionthroughout.IthinkthePresidentwascorrectinorderingtheseflights.IthinkthePresidentwascorrect,certainly,inhisdecisiontocontinuetheflightswhiletheconferencewasgoingon.Inoted,forexample,inreadingaparticulardiscussionthatSenatorKennedyhadwithDaveGarrowayshortly aftertheuh-hisstatementsaboutregrets,thatuh-hemadethestatementthathefeltthattheseparticularflightswereonesthatshouldn't haveoccurredrightatthattime,and theindicationwashowwouldMr.KhrushchevhadfeltifwehadhadaflightovertheUnitedStateswhilehewasvisitinghere.Andtheanswer,ofcourse,isthatCommunistespionagegoesonallthetime.TheansweristhattheUnitedStatescan'taffordtohaveanespionagelack—orshouldIsayanintelligencelag—anymorethanwecanaffordtohave amissilelag.
ItisclearfromthepassagethatKennedy hadraisedtheissueofwhetherU-2flightsshouldhavebeenconductedwhileKhrushchevwasvisitinghere,andNixonaddressedthedifferentissueofwhethertheUSshouldengageinespionage.Idon'tthinkIambeinguncharitableininterpretingNixon'sremarksashavingevadedtheissue;indeed,KennedyrebuttedhimshortlyafterNixonmade his comment:
Mr.Kennedy:Numbertwo,onthequestionoftheU-2flights.IthoughttheU-2flightsin Mayjustbeforetheconferencewasamistakeintimingbecauseofthehazardsinvolved,ifthesummitconferencehadanyhopeforsuccess.InevercriticizedtheU-2flightsingeneral,however.Ineversuggestedespionageshouldstop.Itstillgoeson,Iwouldassume, on both sides.
Intheexampleabove,thecandidateignoredtheissueby"settingupastrawman"—thatis,distortinghisopponent'sposition.Alsocommoninthedebatesarecasesinwhichcandidatesdidnotanswerthequestionsputtothem,butinsteadraisedirrelevantissuesorrevertedtoearlierissues.
Example:
Mr.McGee:Mr.VicePresident,someofyourearlycampaignliteraturesaidyouweremaking astudytoseeifnewlawswereneededtoprotectthepublicagainstexcessiveuse
ofpowerbylaborunions.Haveyoudecidedwhethersuchnewlawsareneeded,and,ifso, whatwould theydo?
Mr.Nixon:Mr.McGee,Iamplanningaspeechonthatsubjectnextweek.Also,sothatwecangettheopportunityforthequestionerstoquestionme,itwillbebeforethenexttelevisiondebate.Iwillsaysimply,inadvanceofit,thatIbelievethatinthisarea,thelawswhichshouldbepassed,asfarasthebignationalemergencystrikesareconcerned,are ones that willgive the presidentmoreweaponswithwhich to dealwith those strikes.
Now,IhaveabasicdisagreementwithSenatorKennedy,though,onthispoint.Hehastakentheposition,whenhefirstindicatedinOctoberoflastyear,thathewouldevenfavorcompulsory arbitrationasoneoftheweaponsthepresidentmighthavetostopanationalemergencystrike.IunderstandinhislastspeechbeforetheSteelworkersUnion,thathechangedthatpositionandindicatedthathefeltthatgovernmentseizuremightbethebestwaytostopastrikewhichcouldnotbesettled bycollectivebargaining.Idonotbelieveweshouldhaveeithercompulsoryarbitrationorseizure.Ithinkthemomentthatyougivetotheunion,ontheoneside,andtomanagement,ontheotherside,theescapehatchofeventuallygoingtogovernmenttogetitsettled,thatmostofthesegreatstrikeswillendupbeingsettledby government,andthatwillbeintheend,inmyopinion,wagecontrol;itwouldmeanpricecontrol—allthethingsthatwedonotwant.Idobelieve,however,thatwecangivetothepresidentoftheUnitedStatespowers,inadditiontowhathepresentlyhasinthefact-findingarea,whichwouldenablehim to be more effectivethanwe have been in handlingthese strikes.
Nixondoesnotanswerthequestionwhetherhewouldproposenewlawsrestrictingthepowerofunions,andifso,whichones.Hesayshewillgiveaspeechthenextweekonthesubject,hecriticizesKennedy'spositiononcompulsoryarbitration,butasidefromsayingthatthePresidentneedsgreaterpowerstodealwith“nationalemergencystrikes,"hesaysnothing.Speakingingeneralitiesisonewaycandidatesignorethespecificissueraisedbya questioner.
Another example:
Mr.McGee:SenatorKennedy,amomentagoyoumentionedtaxloopholes.Nowyourrunningmate,SenatorLyndonJohnson,isfromTexas,anoil-producingstateandonethatmanypoliticalleadersfeelisindoubtinthiselectionyear.Andreportsfromtheresaythat oil men in Texas areseekingassurancefrom SenatorJohnson that theoildepletionallowancewillnotbecut.TheDemocraticplatformpledgestoplugloopholesinthetaxlawsandreferstoinequitabledepletionallowanceasbeingconspicuousloopholes.Myquestionis,doyouconsiderthetwentysevenandahalfpercentdepletionallowance inequitable, and wouldyouask that it be cut?
Mr.Kennedy:Mr.McGee,thereareaboutahundredandfourcommoditiesthathavesomekindofdepletionallowance—differentkindsofminerals,includingoil.Ibelieveallofthoseshouldbegoneoverindetailtomakesurethatnooneisgettingataxbreak;tomakesurethatnooneisgettingawayfrompayingthetaxesheoughttopay.Thatincludes oil; it includesall kinds of minerals; it includeseverythingwithintherangeoftaxation.Wewanttobesureit'sfairandequitable.Itincludesoilabroad.Perhapsthatoilabroadshouldbetreateddifferentlythantheoilhereathome.Nowtheoilindustry
recentlyhashadhardtimes.Particularlysomeofthesmallerproducers.They'removingabouteightorninedaysinTexas.ButIcanassureyouthatifI'melectedpresident,thewholespectrumoftaxeswillbegonethroughcarefully,andifthereisanyinequitiesinoiloranyothercommodity,thenIwouldvotetoclosethatloophole.Ihavevotedinthepasttoreducethedepletionallowanceforthelargestproducers;forthosefromfivemilliondollarsdown,tomaintainitattwenty-sevenandahalfpercent.Ibelieveweshouldstudythisandotherallowances;taxexpense,dividendexpensesandalltherest,andmakeadeterminationofhowwecanstimulategrowth;howwecanprovidetherevenues needed to moveourcountryforward.
NotethatKennedyneverspecificallyansweredthequestionswhetherthepresent27½%depletionallowanceisinequitableandwhetherhewouldcutit.Inmanyoftheirotheranswers,KennedyandNixon ascended to generalities.
Ignoring the issue was also a prominent feature of the Reagan/Mondale debate—occurringfifteentimes ormore.Again, someexamples:
Question:Mr.Mondale,tworelatedquestionsonthecrucialissueofCentralAmerica.YouandtheDemocraticPartyhavesaidthattheonlypolicytowardthehorrendouscivilwarsinCentralAmericashouldbeontheeconomicdevelopmentsandnegotiationswith,perhaps,quarantineofMarxistNicaragua.Doyoubelievethattheseanswerswouldinanywaysolvethebitterconflictsthere?Doyoureallybelievethatthereisnoneedtoresorttoforceatall?ArenotthesesolutionstoCentralAmerica'sgnawingproblemssimplyagain too weak and too late?
Mondale:IbelievethatthequestionoversimplifiesthedifficultiesofwhatwemustdoinCentralAmerica.Ourobjectivesoughttobetostrengthenthedemocracy,tostopCommunist andother extremistinfluencesand stabilizethecommunityin thatarea.
Todothat,weneedathree-prongedattack.Oneismilitaryassistancetoourfriendswhoarebeingpressured.Secondly,astrongandsophisticatedeconomicaidprogramandhumanrightsprogramthatoffersabetterlifeandasharperalternativetothealternativeofferedbythetotalitarianswhoopposeus.Andfinally,astrongdiplomaticeffortthat pursues thepossibilities of peace in thearea.
Thecrucialquestionaboutwhethermilitaryforceisneededwasneverspecificallyaddressed.Instead,Mondale spokein generalities.
Question:Mr.Mondale,ifIcouldbroadenthequestionjustalittlebit.SinceWorldWarII,everyconflictthatweasAmericanshavebeeninvolvedwithhasbeeninnonconventionalorirregulartermsandyetwekeepfighting inconventionalortraditionalmilitaryterms.TheCentralAmericanwarsareverymuchinthesamepatternasChina,asLebanon,asIran,asCubaintheearlydays.Doyouseeanypossibilitythatwearegoingto realizethe change in warfare in ourtimeor react to it in those terms?
Mondale:Weabsolutelymust,whichiswhyIrespondedtoyourfirstquestionthewayIdid.It'smuchmorecomplex.Youmustunderstandtheregion,youmustunderstandthepoliticsinthearea,youmustprovideastrongalternative,andyoumustshowstrengthandallatthesametime.That'swhyIobjecttothecovertactioninNicaragua.That'sa
classicexampleofastrategythat'sembarrassedus,strengthenedouroppositionandundermined the moralauthorityofourpeople andourcountryin the region.
Again, Mondale ignores the central question (which was how the U.S. should handleunconventionalwars) byspeakinginglitteringgeneralities.
Example:
Question:Mr.President,Iwanttoaskyouaboutnegotiatingwithfriends.YouseverelycriticizedPresidentCarterforhelpingtounderminetwofriendlydictatorswhogotintotroublewiththeirownpeople,theShahofIranandPresidentSomozaofNicaragua.Nowthereareothersuchleadersheadingfortrouble,includingPresidentPinochetofChileandPresidentMarcosofthePhilippines.Whatshouldyoudoandwhatcanyoudotoprevent the Philippines from becominganother Nicaragua?
Reagan:Morton,IdidcriticizethePresidentbecauseofourundercuttingofwhatwasastalwartally,theShahofIran.AndIamnotatallconvincedthathewasthatfaroutoflinewithhispeopleorthattheywantedthattohappen.TheShahhaddoneourbiddingandcarriedourloadintheMiddleEastforquitesometimeandIdidthinkthatitwasablotonourrecordthatwelethimdown.Hadthingsgottenbetter,theShah,whateverhemighthavedone,wasbuildinglow-costhousing,hadtakenlandawayfromthemullahsandwasdistributingittothepeasantssotheycouldbeland-owners,thingsofthatkind.Butweturneditovertoamaniacalfanaticwhohasslaughteredthousandsandthousandsof people callingit executions.
ThematterofSomoza,no,IneverdefendedSomoza.Andasamatteroffact,thepreviousAdministrationstoodbyandsodidI—notthatIcouldhavedoneanythinginmypositionatthattime.Butforthisrevolutiontotakeplaceandthepromiseoftherevolutionwasdemocracy,humanrights,freelaborunions,freepress.AndthenjustasCastrohaddoneinCuba,theSandinistasoustedtheotherpartiestotherevolution.ManyofthemarenowtheContras.Theyexiledsome,theyjailedsome,theymurderedsome.AndtheyinstalledaMarxist-LeninisttotalitarianGovernment.AndwhatIhavetosayaboutthisis,manytimes—andthishastodowiththePhilippinesalso—IknowtherearethingsthereinthePhilippinesthatdonotlookgoodtousfromthestandpointrightnowofdemocraticrights.Butwhatisthealternative?ItisalargeCommunistmovementto take over the Philippines.
Theyhavebeen ourfriendfor—since their inception as a nation.AndIthink
thatwe'vehadenoughofarecordofletting,undertheguiseofrevolution,someonethatwethoughtwasalittlemorerightthanwewouldbe,lettingthatpersongoandthenwindingupwithtotalitarianismpureandsimpleasthealternativeandIthinkthatwe'rebetteroff,forexample,withthePhilippinesoftryingtoretainourfriendshipandhelpthemrightthewrongsweseeratherthanthrowingthemtothewolvesandthenfacingaCommunist power in the Pacific.
Note that Reagan ignores the issue of what he would do to prevent the Philippines frombecominganother Nicaragua.
Why docandidatessooftenignoretheissuesraisedby theinterviewersandtheopposingcandidates?Herewemustremindourselvesthatattributingafallacytosomeoneisnotnecessarily to accusethatpersonof dishonestargumentation.A fallacy is anerrorin
argumentation, but notnecessarilya dishonestor deliberateone.Ina sense,politicalcandidatesinateleviseddebateareprisonersoftheformat.Theycannotsay"Idon'tknow,I'llhavetothinkaboutit"toanewanddifficultissue.Norcantheytellaninterviewerthathisquestionishopelesslynaive,impertinent,asinine,unfairlyspecific,orridiculouslybroad,forfearofappearingchurlish.Thefaultforsuchlogicallapsesmaylienotinourpoliticiansbutinus,formakingupourmindsaboutforwhomtovoteonthebasisofoneortwoshortdebateperformances.
However,onemightarguethatpoliticalcandidatesarenotcompletelycompelledtoignoretheissuewhenaskedaquestionwhosefullydetailedanswerwouldtakemuchmorethanthetimeallotted.Forinstance,perhapsthecandidatescouldsketchoutageneralanswer,andthenindicatewhichofthepositionpapershehasissuedamplifyuponhisviews.Buttherearedifficultieswithsuchasuggestion.Itishardforcandidatestoanticipateinadvancealltheissuesuponwhichquestionswillbeasked,andsoitwouldbehardforthemtoissuepositionpapersinadvance.Andanycandidatewhopromisestoissueapaperonlyafterthedebateisoverislikelytoappearfoolish.Butperhapssomeothermeanscanbedevisedtoallowcandidatestoreallygrapple withcomplicatedissues.
False Cause
Inreadingthetranscriptsofthedebates,oneisstruckalsobythenumberoftimesonecandidateAwillarguethatsincebadthingshappenedwhentheothercandidateB(orhisparty)wasinoffice,Bwasthecauseofthosebadthings,orthatsincegoodthingshappenedwhileA(orhisparty)wasinoffice,Awasthecauseofthosegoodthings.Suchargumentsarefallaciesof false cause (specificallypost hocergopropterhoc).Examples:
Mr.Nixon:Yes.Asamatteroffact,thestatementthatSenatorKennedymadewasthat—totheeffectthatthereweretrigger-happyRepublicans,thatmystandonQuemoyandMatsuwasan indication of trigger-happyRepublicans.
Iresentthatcomment.I resentitbecauseit'sanimplicationthatRepublicanshavebeentrigger-happyand,therefore,wouldleadthis nation into war.IwouldremindSenatorKennedyofthepastfiftyyears. IwouldaskhimtonameoneRepublicanpresidentwholedthisnationintowar.TherewerethreeDemocraticpresidentswholedusintowar.Idonotmeanbythatthatonepartyisawarpartyandtheotherpartyisapeaceparty.ButIdosaythatanystatementtotheeffectthattheRepublicanpartyistrigger-happyis beliedbytherecord.
WemightinterpretthispassagecharitablybytakingNixon'sstatement“Idonotmeanbythatthatonepartyisawarparty...”atfacevalue;however,sinceRepublicanssuchasFord,Dole,andBushhavemadethesamepointinlaterdebates(thatallwarsinthiscenturywerestartedunderDemocraticpresidents),IthinkwemayfairlysuspectthatNixonwasattemptingtopaintthe Democratsas beingresponsible for wars.
Example:
Mr.Nixon:OnelastpointIshouldmake.TherecordinhandlingstrikeshasbeenverygoodduringthisAdministration.Wehavehadlessman-hourslostbystrikesintheselastsevenyearsthanwehadintheprevioussevenyears,byagreatdeal.AndIonlywantto
saythathowevergoodtherecordis,it'sgottobebetter.Becauseinthiscriticalperiodofthesixtieswe'vegottomoveforward,allAmericansmustmoveforwardtogether,andwehavetogetthegreatestcooperationpossiblebetweenlaborandmanagement.Wecannotaffordstoppagesofmassiveeffectontheeconomywhenwe'reintheterriblecompetitionwe're in withthe Soviets.
AfairconstrualofNixon'sremarksisthatsincefewerman-hourswerelostbystrikesduringtheRepublicanadministration,it(andbysomefurtherinference,he)thereforeshouldbegivencredit.Butanynumberofotherfactorsmaybethecauseofreducedstrikeactivity(besidestheadministration'spolicies).Indeed,undertheAmericaneconomicsystem,thePresidentandhisadministrationhave littleto do with union activitiesandcorporatewage decisions.
Example:
Mr.Kennedy:Onthequestionofthecostofourbudget,Ihavestatedthatit'smybestjudgmentthatouragriculturalprogramwillcostabillionandahalf,possiblytwobilliondollarslessthanthepresentagriculturalprogram.MyjudgmentisthattheprogramtheVicePresidentputforward,whichisanextensionofMr.Benson'sprogram,willcostabillion dollarsmore thanthe presentprogram, which costsabout sixbillion dollars ayear,themostexpensiveinhistory.We'vespentmoremoneyonagricultureinthelasteightyearsthan thehundredyears oftheAgriculturalDepartmentbefore that.
Afairconstrualof Kennedy'sremarksisthatbecausemoremoneyhasbeenspentonAgricultureduringtheyearswhiletheRepublicanswereintheWhiteHouse,theymustberesponsibleforthatincreasedspending.Butagain,otherfactors(suchasCongressionalactions)mayhavebeentheactualcauseoftheincrease.Indeed,atthefederallevel,thePresidentdoesnothavetheline-itemveto:hemusteithervetothebudgetasawhole(whichcanleadtogreateconomicdisruptions),orapproveit.ThatlimitsaPresident'spowertocontrolspendingconsiderably.Moreover(again,intheAmericansystem),itisnotunusualforonepoliticalpartytocontroltheWhiteHouseandtheotherpartytheCongress(wherespending billsoriginate).ThatalsodramaticallylimitsaPresident'spowertocontrolspending.Somerelypointingoutthatspendingincreasedunderx'sadministrationdoesnotcomeanywherenearshowingthatxisresponsiblefor it.
Another case:
Mr.Nixon:Iamneversatisfiedwiththeeconomicgrowthofthiscountry.I'mnotsatisfiedwithiteveniftherewerenoCommunismintheworld,butparticularlywhenwe'reinthekindofaracewe'rein,wehavegottoseethatAmericagrowsjustasfastaswecan,providedwegrowsoundly.Becauseeventhoughwehavemaintained,asIpointedoutinourfirstdebate,theabsolutegapovertheSovietUnion;eventhoughthegrowthinthisAdministrationhasbeentwiceasmuchasitwasintheTrumanAdministration;thatisn'tgoodenough.BecauseAmericamustbeabletogrowenoughnotonly totakecareofourneedsathomeforbettereducationandhousingandhealth—allthese things we want.
Nixonassertsthathewon'tbecontentwiththegrowthrateachievedunderthecurrentRepublicanadministration,eventhoughitisdoubletherateintheprevious(Democratic)administration.Itisreasonabletoviewthispassageascontainingtheenthymemethatbecause
undertheRepublicanadministrationthegrowthratewasdoublewhatitwasundertheDemocraticone,thattheRepublicansareresponsibleforthehigherrate.Laterinthedebate,Nixon reiterated the argument:
Mr.Nixon:Americanhasnotbeenstandingstill.Let'sgetthatstraight.AnybodywhosaysAmerican'sbeenstanding stillforthelastsevenandahalfyearshasn't beentravelingaroundAmerica.He'sbeentravelinginsomeothercountry.Wehavebeenmoving.WehavebeenmovingmuchfasterthanwedidintheTrumanyears.Butwecanandmustmovefaster,andthat'swhyIstandsostronglyforprogramsthatwillmoveAmericaforwardinthesixties,moveherforwardsothatwecanstayaheadoftheSovietUnionandwin the battlefor freedomandpeace.
Consider next anexample from theReagan/Mondale debate:
Mr.Mondale:WhereIpartwiththePresidentIsthatdespiteallofthosedifferences,wemust,aspastPresidentsbeforethisonehavedone,meetonthecommongroundofsurvival.Andthat'swherethePresidenthas opposed practicallyeveryarmscontrolagreement,byeveryPresidentofbothpoliticalparties,sincethebombwentoff.Andhenowcompletesthistermwithnoprogresstowardarmscontrolatall,butwithaverydangerousarmsraceunderwayinstead.Therearenowover2,000morewarheadspointedat us todaythan therewere whenhe was sworn in, andthatdoes not strengthen us.
MondaleseemstobearguingthatsincetherehadbeennoarmscontrolagreementsunderReagan,Reaganmustbethecause.Butothercausesarepossible;forinstance,theinstabilityintheSovietgovernment(severalSovietPremiersdiedduringReagan'sfirstterm).PerhapsweshouldbeverycharitableandsaythatReagan'shawkishstatementsandaffiliationsarewell-known,andthatMondaleisrightlyappealingtobackgroundknowledge.Butevengrantingthatthatistrulyuncontestedbackgroundknowledge(whichIsuspectReaganandhissupporterswouldvigorouslydeny),itstilldoesnotcomenearprovingthatReaganisresponsibleforthelackofagreementsonarms.SomeRepublicanshavesignedarmsagreements(e.g.,Nixon),andsomeDemocratshavefailed(e.g.,Kennedy,whogotapartialtestbanbutnoarmslimitationstreaty).
Attheveryleast,MondaleneededtopointtospecificproposalsmadeingoodfaithbytheSovietswhichReaganrefusedtoconsider,orspecificoccasionswheretheSovietswerewillingtonegotiateandReaganwasn't.PerhapsMondalecouldhavedoneso,butwhathesaiddid not constitute proof, but onlyafalsecause fallacy.
In thefollowing exchange, severalinstances offalse causewere committed.
Mondale:Oneofthebiggestproblemstodayisthatthecountriestooursoutharesodesperatelypoorthatthesepeoplewhowillalmostlosetheirlivesiftheydon'tcomenorth,comenorthdespitealltherisks.Andifwe'regoingtofindapermanent,fundamentalanswertothis,itgoestoAmericaneconomicandtradepoliciesthatpermitthesenationstohaveachancetogetontheirowntwofeetandtogetprosperitysothattheycan havejobs for themselvesandtheir people.
Andthat'swhythisenormousnationaldebt,engineeredby thisAdministration,isharmingthesecountriesandfuelingthisimmigration.Thesehighinterestrates,realrates
thathavedoubledundertheAdministration,havehadthesameeffectonMexicoandsoon,andthecostofrepayingthosedebtsissoenormousthatitresultsinmassiveunemployment,hardshipandheartache.Andthatdrivesourfriendstothenorth--tothesouth—up into our region,and the need toend those deficitsas well.
Moderator: Mr. President,your rebuttal.
Reagan:Well,myrebuttalisI'veheardthenationaldebtblamedforalotofthings,butnotforillegalimmigrationacrossourborder,andithasnothingtodowithit.Butwithregardtothesehighinterestrates,too,atleastgiveustherecognitionofthefactthatwhenyouleftoffice,Mr.Mondale,theywere22%,theprimerate;it'snow12%,andIpredictit'llbecomingdownalittlemoreshortly.Sowe'retryingtoundosomeofthethingsthatyour Administration did.
ThenationaldebtgrewunderReagan,soReagancausedit(andthat,curiously,causedtheillegalimmigrationfromMexico!),towhichReaganrespondsbysayingthattheinterestrateswerehigh under Carter, so Carter causedthatproblem (and so, curiously,thatMondale is to blame).
Again,wemustbefairandrealizethatgivingacandidateoneminutetoexplainwhatcauses(say) highinterestrates is not awayto encourage in-depth causalanalysis.
Adpopulum
Quiteunsurprisingisthelargenumberofappealstopatriotism,"us-versus-them"emotionsandsoon.Thesesortsofappealsareapparentinmanyofthesamplepassagescitedearlier(especiallyinthepassagesappealingtoourcollectivefearoftheSoviets).Someadditionalexamples:
Mr.Nixon:NowwhatdotheChineseCommunistswant?Theydon'twantjustQuemoyandMatsu;they don'twantjustFormosa;they wanttheworld.Andthequestionisifyousurrenderorindicateinadvancethatyou'renotgoingtodefendanypartofthefreeworld,andyoufigurethat'sgoingtosatisfythem,itdoesn'tsatisfythem.Itonlywhetstheirappetite;andthenthequestioncomes,whendoyoustopthem?I'veoftenheardPresidentEisenhowerindiscussing thisquestion,makethestatementthatif weoncestarttheprocessofindicatingthatthispointorthatpointisnottheplacetostopthosewhothreatenthepeaceandfreedomoftheworld,wheredowestopthem?AndIsaythatthoseofuswhostandagainstsurrenderofterritorythisoranyothersinthefaceofblackmail,inthefaceofforcebytheCommunistsarestandingforthecoursethatwilllead to peace.
Inthispassage,NixonassociateshimselfwiththepopularPresidentEisenhower,andplaceshimselfintheclassofthosewhoopposeCommunisticblackmail,whofavorpeaceinshort,placeshimselfonthesideoftheangels(andIke!).Thereisalsoarguablyaslippery-slopefallacylurkinginthepassage:ifwedonotdefendQuemoyandMatsu,wedon'tknowwheretheywillstop.
Example:
Mr.Nixon:Beyondthat,asfarasthegoldsupplyisconcerned,andasfarasthemovementofgoldisconcerned,wehavetobearinmindthatwemustgetmorehelp
fromouralliesabroadinthisgreatventureinwhichallfreemenareinvolvedofwinningthe battle for freedom.
Again,grandioseappealsto freedomused to (somehow) buttress aposition.
Example:
Mr.Nixon:Ofcourse,bothSenatorKennedyandIhavefeltMr.Truman'sire;andconsequently,Ithinkhecanspeakwithsomefeeling onthissubject.Ijustdowanttosayonething,however.Weallhavetempers;Ihaveone;I'msureSenatorKennedyhasone.Butwhenaman'spresident oftheUnitedStates,oraformerpresident, hehasanobligationnottolosehistemperinpublic.OnethingI'venotedasI'vetraveledaroundthecountryarethetremendousnumberofchildrenwhocomeouttoseethepresidentialcandidates.Iseemothersholdingtheirbabiesup,sothattheycanseeamanwhomightbepresidentoftheUnitedStates.IknowSenatorKennedyseesthem,too.Itmakesyourealizethatwhoeverispresidentisgoing tobeamanthatallthechildrenofAmericawilleitherlookupto,orwilllookdownto.AndIcanonlysaythatI'mveryproudthatPresidentEisenhowerrestoreddignityanddecencyand,frankly,goodlanguagetotheconductofthepresidencyoftheUnitedStates.AndIonlyhopethat,shouldIwinthiselection,thatIcouldapproachPresidentEisenhowerinmaintainingthedignityoftheoffice;inseeingtoitthatwheneveranymotherorfathertalkstohischild,hecanlookatthemanintheWhiteHouseand,whateverhemaythinkofhispolicies,hewillsay:"Well,thereisamanwhomaintainsthekindofstandardspersonallythatIwouldwantmychild to follow."
Nixonpaintsapictureofmothersholdingbabieslookinguptoacleanrole-model,theimmenselypopularEisenhower,andclearlyhopestheaudiencewilltransferthosewarmrespectfulfeelings to him.
TheclosingstatementsintheReagan/Mondaledebatealsobroughtoutsomeappealtothe crowd.Two short examples:
Mr.Mondale:Iwantthisnationtoprotectitsair,itswater,itslandanditspublichealth.Americaisnottemporary.We'reforever.AndasAmericans,ourgenerationshouldprotectthiswonderfullandforourchildren.Iwantanationoffairness,wherenooneisdeniedthefullnessoflifeordiscriminatedagainst,andwedealcompassionatelywiththoseinourmidstwhoareintrouble.Andaboveall,Iwantanationthat'sstrong.Sincewedebatedtwoweeksago,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionhavebuilt100morewarheads,enough to kill millions of Americans and millions of Sovietcitizens.
Mr.Reagan:Weshouldn'tbedwellingonthepastoreventhepresent.Themeaningofthiselectionisthefuture,andwhetherwe'regoingtogrowandprovidethejobsandtheopportunitiesforallAmericansandthattheyneed.SeveralyearsagoIwasgivenanassignmenttowritealetter.Itwastogointoatimecapsuleandwouldbereadin100yearswhenthattimecapsulewasopened.IrememberdrivingdowntheCaliforniacoastoneday.MymindwasfullofwhatIwasgoingtoputinthatletterabouttheproblemsandtheissuesthatconfrontusinourtimeandwhatwedidaboutthem,butIcouldn'tcompletelyneglectthebeautyaroundmethePacificoutthereononesideofthe
highway shininginthesunlight,themountainsofthecoastrangerisingontheotherside,andIfoundmyselfwonderingwhatitwouldbelikeforsomeone,wonderingifsomeone100yearsfromnowwouldbedrivingdownthathighwayandifthey wouldseethesamething.
Thereadershouldnotinterpretmyremarksassayingthatonlydeceitfulpoliticianswouldstoopto ad populumappeals.No,evenverydecent politicians engagein suchrhetoric.Butad populumappealsshouldberecognizedassuch,evenifweunderstandtheirusageincontextssuchastheone under consideration.
Adhominem Attacks
Lessfrequentinthetwodebatesareovertadhominemattacks.Ifoundthissurprising,givenhowfrequentlypersonalattacksoccurinordinaryargumentsandletterstotheeditorofmagazinesandnewspapers.Perhapscandidatesinanationallyteleviseddebatearereluctanttoattacktheothertooblatantly,lestthedebateturnintoamudslingingcontest.Butslydigsaremanaged:
Mr.Kennedy:Mr.Griffin,Ibelieve,whoistheheadoftheKlan,wholivesinTampa,Florida,indicatedinastatement,Ithink,twoorthreeweeksagothathewasnotgoingtovoteforme,andthathewasgoingtovoteforMr.Nixon.Idonotsuggestinanyway,norhaveIever,thatthatindicatesthatMr.Nixonhastheslightestsympathy,involvement,orinanywayimplyanyinferenceinregardtotheKuKluxKlan.That'sabsurd.Idon'tsuggest that.Idon't support it.Iwould disagree with it.
Kennedy proteststoomuchhehimselfbringsupthefactthattheheadoftheKKKcameoutinsupportofNixon,anditisnotuncharitable,Ithink,tobelievethatKennedywassuggestingthatsince the KKK supportedNixon, Nixonwassuspect(guiltbyassociation).
Another case:
Mr.Nixon:[respondingtoKennedy'spointthattheU.S.hadslippedinprestige,asevidencedbyGalluppollstakeninothercountries,andU.N.votes]:Well,IwouldsayfirstofallthatSenatorKennedy'sstatementthathe'sjustmadeisnotgoingtohelpourGallupPollsabroadanditisn'tgoingtohelpourprestigeeither.Let'slookattheothersideofthecoin.Let'slookatthevoteontheCongo,thevotewasseventytonothingagainsttheSovietUnion.Let'slookatthesituationwithregardtoeconomicgrowthasitreallyis. We findthat theSovietUnion is averyprimitive economy.Itsgrowthrate is notwhatcounts;it'swhetherit is catchingup with us and it is catchingup withus. We'rewellaheadandwecanstayahead,providedwehaveconfidenceinAmericaanddon'trunherdowninordertobuildherup.WecouldlookalsoatotheritemswhichSenatorKennedyhasnamed,butI willonly concludebysaying this:inthiswholematterof prestige,inthefinalanalysis,it'swhetheryoustandforwhat'sright.Andgettingbacktothismatterthatwediscussedattheoutset,thematterofQuemoyandMatsu.IcanthinkofnothingthatwillbeagreaterblowtotheprestigeoftheUnitedStatesamongthefreenationsinAsiathanforustotakeSenatorKennedy's advicetogoagainstwhatamajorityofthe
membersoftheSenate,bothDemocratandRepublican,did—saidin1955,andtosay inadvance we will surrender anarea to theCommunists.
NixoninsinuatesthatKennedy'spointissuspectbecauseithurtsourreputation,andthatthosewhowantAmerica heldinhighregard should avoid suchcomments.
Otherstandardfallaciesarediscernibleinthetwodebates,including loadedquestions(bythequestioners),appealstoauthority,falseanalogies,slipperyslopearguments,andhedging.Ifoundnocasesofcompositionordivision,andonlyoneratherunclearcaseofbeggingthequestion.Someofthecandidates—KennedyandReagan,inparticular—deflectedquestionsbyhumorousdiversion.Itisplausibletosuggestthatthosecandidateswhoarebynaturewittywillutilize their wit to out ofansweringquestions theydon'twish to answer (forwhateverreasons).
Example:
Mr.VonFremd:SenatorKennedy,I'dliketoshifttheconversation,ifImay,toadomesticpoliticalargument.ThechairmanoftheRepublicanNationalCommittee,SenatorThurstonMorton,declaredearlierthisweekthatyouowedVicePresidentNixonandtheRepublicanPartyapublicapologyforsomestrongchargesmadebyformerPresidentHarryTruman,whobluntlysuggestedwheretheVicePresidentandtheRepublicanpartycouldgo. Doyoufeelthatyou owetheVice President anyapology?
Mr.Kennedy:Well,ImustsaythatMr.Trumanhashismethodsofexpressingthings;he'sbeeninpoliticsforfiftyyears;he'sbeenPresidentoftheUnitedStates.Theyarenotmystyle.ButIreallydon'tthinkthere'sanythingthatIcouldsaytoPresidentTrumanthat'sgoingtocausehim,attheageofseventy-six,tochangehisparticularspeakingmanner.PerhapsMrs.Trumancan,butI don'tthinkIcan.I'lljusthavetotellMr.Mortonthat.Ifyou'dpassthatmessage on to him.
Another example:
Moderator: Mr. Trewhitt,yourquestion to PresidentReagan?
Question:Mr.President,IwanttoraiseanissuethatIthinkhasbeenlurkingouttherefortwoorthreeweeks,andcastitspecifically innationalsecurity terms.Youalready aretheoldestPresidentinhistory,andsomeofyourstaffsaysyouweretiredafteryourmostrecentencounterwithMr.Mondale.Irecall,yes,thatPresidentKennedy,whohadtogofordaysonendwithverylittlesleepduringtheCubamissilecrisis.Isthereanydoubtinyour mind thatyou would be able to function in such circumstances?
Reagan:Notatall,Mr.TrewhittandIwantyoutoknowthatalsoIwillnotmakeageanissueofthiscampaign.Iamnotgoingtoexploitforpoliticalpurposesmyopponent'syouthandinexperience.IfIstillhavetime,Imightadd,Mr.Trewhitt,ImightaddthatitwasSenecaoritwasCicero,Idon'tknowwhich,thatsaidifitwasnotfortheelderscorrectingthe mistakesoftheyoung,therewould beno state.
Question:Mr.President,I'dliketoheadforthefenceandtrytocatchthatonebeforeitgoes overbut withoutgoingto another question.
ThiswasperhapsthemostfamousmomentintheReagan/Mondaledebate.ThePresidentturnedasideTrewhitt'squestionwithaquipwhichmadeeveryoneincludingMondalelaugh,and didmuchtodefusethe"ageissue." (Thequestioner,Mr.Trewhitt,realizedthatthePresidenthadscored ahome run on that pitch!)
Inboththedebatesexamined,roughlyfortytofiftystandardfallaciesarediscernible,without,itmustbeadmitted,beingoverlycharitable.Thenumbersarereducedifwebendoverbackwardstobecharitable,buttheclearfallaciesarestillsufficientlynumeroustojustifytheclaimthatthestandardfallaciesdiscussedin"oldtime"logictextsareindeedcommon.AstudentwhoreadWhately'sElementsofLogicwouldhavenotroubleapplyingthedefinitionsoffallaciescontained therein to the debateswe havebeenexamining.
Notonlydofallaciesasdefinedinstandardtextsseemcommon,butitseemslikelythatwecanempiricallycorrelatetypeoffallacy withtypeofargumentativecontext.Politicaldebatesseem to callforth ignoringtheissue andadpopulumarguments.Salespitches seem to involveadpopulumandspecialpleading.However,muchmoreempiricalworkneedstobedonetosayforsure.
Itishardenoughtoteachstandardintroductorylogicwellwhenonehasconfidencethatwhatheorsheteachestrulyedifiesthestudent.Letusnotloseconfidencebysupposingthattraditionalcategoriesoflogicalerror,seemingly discernedbyscholarsofmany differentculturesover millennia, arein factan illusion.
Gary James Jason
Department of Philosophy
Washburn University
[1]MauriceFinocchiaro"FallaciesandtheEvaluationofReasoning,"AmericanPhilosophicalQuarterly,Vol.18,No.1,Jan.1981,p.14.
[2]Ibid.p.15.