Ch. 11 Motivation and Emotion (Bernstein)

Ch. 11 Motivation and Emotion (Bernstein)

AP Outline

VIII. Motivation and Emotion (7–9%)

• Biological Bases
• Theories of Motivation
• Hunger, Thirst, Sex, and Pain
• Social Motives
• Theories of Emotion
• Stress

Pg. 403

Organization of the Chapter:

Motivation defined

Sources of Motivation:

• Biological Factors
• Emotional Factors
• Cognitive Factors
• Social Factors

Instinct Theory:

• Automatic
• Involuntary
• Unlearned
• Evolutionary
• Aggression
• Mate Selection

Drive Reduction Theory

• Biological
• Homeostasis- tendency to keep physiological systems at a steady level or equilibrium
• Imbalance in Homeostasis creates a need- a need is a biological requirement for well-being…
• The brain creates a psychological state, called a drive…
• A drive is a feeling of arousal
• Drive reduces the need
• Drives cause organism to to take action to restore balance + reduce the drive
• The drive satisfies the need to restore balance

Optimal Arousal Theory

• Arousal-general state of activation- reflected in heart, lungs, brain, muscles
• People are motivated to behave in ways that maintain a level of arousal that is optimal, we try to increase arousal when it is too low and to decrease when it is too high
• Pg 410 Charts
• Yerkes Dodson Study- there is a curve that identifies the task to be completed and optimal arousal that matches the task.

Incentive Theory

• Behaviors that are motivated by:

1. Attaining desired stimuli (positive incentives)
2. Avoiding undesirable ones (negative incentive)

The value of an incentive is influenced by psychological, cognitive and social factors

Difference between wanting and liking:

Wanting is the process of being attracted to an incentive

Dopamine level controls behavior more than liking

Associated with pleasure centers in brain, like drugs

Liking is an evaluation of how pleasurable an incentive is

Hunger and Eating:

• Mix of learning, culture and biology
• Biological signals for hunger and satiety
• Blood-Glucose, Insulin, Leptin

Hunger and the Brain

• Ventro-hypothalamus = satiety
• Lateral-Hypothalamus= Hunger
• Set Point Body Weight may control appetite also
• Really neurotransmitter

Flavor-Food Selection

• Biological need for certain nutrients
• Social context
• Cultural traditions

Eating Disorders

• Obesity=over consumption
• Anorexia=starvation
• Bulimia=binge/purge

Sexual Behavior

• Motivation + Behavior due to Biology and Culture
• Biology of Sexual Response Cycle
• Sex Hormones (varied amounts)
• Androgens
• Estrogen
• Progestins
• Physical differences in brain of different sexes
• Social Cultural Factors
• Gender roles learned
• Sexual Orientation
• Hetero, Homo, Bisexual (Both nature and nurture)
• Sexual Dysfunctions
• Erectile disorder
• Premature Ejaculation
• Female arousal disorder

Achievement Motivation

• Gain Esteem from achievement
• Need for Achievement
• Motive to succeed
• Increase achievement Motives
• Strive, persist, challenge but realistic goals
• Goals Influence motivation
• Effort
• Perseverance
• Attention
• Planning
• Achievement in Workplace
• Workers satisfied when working toward own goals
• Jobs that offer
• Specific Goals
• Variety of Tasks
• Individual Responsibility
• Intrinsic Rewards are most motivating

Maslow

Opponent Processes

Emotions:

Biology of Emotion

Theories

• William James
• Cannon Central Theory
• Cognition Theory
• StanleyShacter
• Richard Lazarus

Communicating Emotion

• Innate Facial Expressions
• Learned Social Cultural influence on emotion
• Communication

Pg. 403 Definition of Motivation:

The factors that influence initiation, direction, intensity + persistence of behavior

Questions to be answered:

Why do we do what we do?

Behavior is based partly on the desire to feel certain emotions.

Motivation  effects emotion

What are the general theories of Emotion?

How is motivation exemplified by Hunger, sexual desire and Need for Achievement?

What is the nature of emotion?

What are the main theories of emotion?

How do people communicate their emotions?

A motive:A reason or purpose that provides a single explanation for diverse behaviors.

Some psychologists think of motivation as an “intervening variable”- something that is used to explain the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.

Sources of motivation: 4 basic categories

Biological

Emotional

Cognitive

Social Factors

4 Theories of Motivation (all use internal processes to prompt behavior)

Instinct
Early 1900s
Instincts are:

• Automatic
• Involuntary behavior patterns
• Triggered by Particular Stimuli

Relates to Evolutionary Psychology

• Adaptive behavior
• Pre-dispositions expressed +survived and reproduced
• Genetic
• Aggression
• Helping
• Mating preferences
• Women are selective for child rearing purposes
• “Women tend to prefer athletic, symmetrical faces, deep voices; preferences are stronger at the point of menstrual cycle when fertility peaks.
• “Females generally preferred males who were mature and wealthy which shows age preferences.

/ Drive Reduction (physiological)
Basis is Homeostasis-

• Tendency to keep physiological systems at a steady level = equilibrium
• Drive reduction says- imbalance in homeostasis creates need
• Need is a biological requirement
• Brain responds to a need and creates a drive
• Drive is a feeling of arousal that prompts an organism to action to restore balance or reduce the drive
• Example-
• Biological need for water
• Drive = thirst
• Motivates you to find water

Incentive Theory

• Emphasizes the role of external stimuli that can motivate behavior, by pulling toward or pushing us away from them.
• People behave in order to get positive incentive and avoid negative incentives
• Variables include:
• Availability of incentives
• Value someone places on the incentive
• Value is influenced by physiological, cognitive, or social factors
• “People sometimes work hard for some incentives only to find that they don’t enjoy having them nearly as much as they thought they would.”

Wanting/Liking

• Wanting: the process of being attracted to incentives
• Liking: immediate evaluation of how pleasurable a stimulus is

Brain Wanting System-

• Different Brain Areas and Neurotransmitters
• Dopamine- associated with pleasure, sex, drugs, gambling,
• Can compel behavior in greater capacity than liking

Optimal Arousal
(Curiosity is not a drive/behavior that does not reduce a drive)

• Some behaviors increase arousal-
• Arousal= a general level of activation with physiological systems
• Example: Brain, heart, lungs and muscles
• Optimal arousal theory says we are motivated to behave in ways that maintain or restore an ideal or optimal level of arousal
• We increase arousal when too low
• We decrease arousal when to high
• Yerkes-Dodson Law
• Says we match level of arousal with a task
• Low Arousal  difficult or complex
• High Arousal  easy tasks

Hunger and Eating-

See Coon

Obesity:

Condition when a person’s body mass index

Weight(over) 25-29.9 = overweight

Square of a person’s height

32% of US population is obese

Diabetes, high blood pressure, heart-attack, and maybe Alzheimer’s disease

30k deaths a year and a shorter life expectancy

Psychological Explanation for Obesity

• Learned models from parents
• Evolutionary people eat more to build up for lean times (fat reserves)
• Starving does not necessarily= weight loss
• When we starve we reduce metabolism

Pg. 419 Sexual Behavior

Physiology + Learned behavior, physical + Social Environment factors

There is a diversity of Sexual Scripts= patterns of behavior that lead to sex

Researchers:

Kinsey 1940’s and 1950s used surveys to study sexual practices

Masters and Johnson 1966, in a laboratory, measured sexual arousal and behavior

Volunteers received natural and artificial stimulation problem conclusions, may not be representative of larger population (limited population sample)

University of Chicago Sex Survey:

Surveys found:

• People generally have sex = 1 per week, with a partner in stable relationship.
• Some a few times or not at all in the past year
• Average male had only 6 partners entire life
• Average female = lifetime 2 partners
• People in committed one partner relationships had the most frequent and satisfying sex
• Majority of heterosexual couples engaged in traditional intercourse

Nearly one quarter of U.S. women prefer to achieve sexual satisfaction without partners of either sex

Consistent Gender Differences:

1. Men tend to have stronger interest in and desire for sex than women
2. Women more likely than men to associate sexual activity with a committed relationship

Findings did not address pornography or sexual deviations, and sample was only in USA

Biology of Sex:

Master’s and Johnson identified Sexual Response Cycle:

The Pattern of physiological arousal during + after sexual arousal

Both men and women

Men / Women

Resolution /

Orgasm

Plateau

Excitement

Men have 1 pattern

Resolution=relaxation

Refractory= men unresponsive

(Women don’t have this they are capable of repeating cycle)

Sex Hormones:

• Estrogens
• Progestins-Progesterone-

• Androgens = Testosterone

Each Hormone flows in blood of each Male and Female

• Average man has more androgens
• Women have more Estrogen + Progesterone

Hormone Effect on Brain:

Organizational Effects:

• Permanent changes that alter brain’s response
• Occur at birth
• Create male and female patterns
• Sexually Dimorphic (sex differences)
• Area of Hypothalamus
• Rising level of sex hormone in puberty
• Women- Estrogen + Androgens (ovaries and testes- secrete)

Activational Effects:

• Effects behavior when hormone is in blood stream
• Stimulate sexual interest (androgens and estrogens in female) (androgens only in males)

Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality:

Learned Gender Roles- Differences

Men and porno

• MRI Study shows activity of amygdala + hypothalamus in men

Pg. 424 Sexual Orientation:

Defined: A person’s enduring, emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others

Hetero, Homo, Bi-sexual

• 1973 Homosexuality was dropped from the DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (used for making diagnosis for abnormal behavior)
• Dropped in china as a mental disorder 2001
• Estimated 2-21 % of population is gay

What shapes sexual orientation?

• Genes may influence sexual orientation.
• Identical twin studies show, 52% correlation one gay other one is too.
• Also, twins were raised apart.
• One reason too much hormone in utero
• May also be associated with increase in androgens and altered structure

Achievement Motivation (the need to achieve)

Why do people take their work seriously and try to do the best they can?

Need Achievement:

Henry Murry (researcher)

• Found some people have need for mastery = motivation to be have competently.
• People with high need for achievement seek to master tasks & feel satisfaction

Extrinsic Motivation

• Desire for external rewards =$

Intrinsic Motivation

• A desire to attain internal satisfaction
• Desire for approval, admiration, achievement =esteem all are strong motives

People with High Need Achievement Characteristics:

• Want a challenge but not too much to prevent success
• Challenging but realistic goals
• Take risks when necessary
• Satisfied when they succeed
• If they tried their best they are not too upset by failure

• Have Self-efficacy “According toAlbert Bandura, self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (1995, p. 2). In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel (1994)”

• People with low N achievement success brings relief at having avoided failure

Development of Need Achievement:

• Tends to be learned in early childhood from parents
• Correlation between parent behavior + achievement motivation
• Kids with low Achievement
• Parents interfered with child difficulty
• Parents became annoyed by lack of success of kid
• Kids with High Achievement Motivation
• Parents Encourage child to try difficult tasks and new tasks
• Gave praise and reinforcement for success
• Encouraged children to find new ways to succeed
• Didn’t complain when kids experienced failure
• Prompt children to get on with the next challenge
• Children were energized by parents
• Goals increase motivation if they are realistic
• Set goals that are specific and clear
• Personally meaningful goals increase motivation

Achievement Success in the Work Place

• Low motivation
• Felling little or no control over work environment
• Create satisfaction + self-efficacy “According toAlbert Bandura, self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (1995, p. 2). In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel (1994)”
• Allow workers to solve problems on their own
• Individual responsibility builds motivation
• Public Recognition
• Allowing goal setting increases performance and satisfaction

Maslow and Motivation:

• Human behavior reflects hierarchy of needs and motives
• Needs at lowest level must be partially satisfied before higher level can be addressed
• “motivated by higher level goals”

1. Biological- needs food – water
2. Safety- secure income, family
3. Belongingness and love- being part of groups, can be sexual and non-sexual
4. Esteem- need to be respected as useful individual
5. Self-Actualization
6. Reaching one’s fullest potential
7. Explore and enhance relationships with others
8. Follow interests with intrinsic pleasure rather than for money, status, or esteem
9. Concerned with issues affecting all people not just themselves.

Critics of Maslow:

Too simplistic

We can seek several needs at once

May not apply cross culturally

Alternate view: Alderfer

3 categories of needs

1. Existence
2. Relatedness- social interaction and attachments
3. Growth- Developing one’s capabilities

• No particular order
• Needs rise and fall from time to time
• Situation to situation
• When a need in one area is fulfilled or frustrated, A person will be motivated to pursue some other need

Conflicting Motives:

• Motives can sometimes be in conflict
• Results in discomfort
• Motivational pushes and pulls can create internal conflict

4 types of Conflicts:

1. Approach-approach Conflict:

• Choose one of the two desirable activities

1. Avoidance-Avoidance
2. Must choose one of 2 undesirable alternatives
3. Approach Avoidance
4. Single event or activity has both attractive and unattractive features
5. Multiple-Approach Avoidance
6. 2 or more alternatives each have both positive and negative features
7. Harder to compare features
8. Creates stress
9. Cost-Benefit Analysis

Opponent Process Theory of Motivation

Richard Soloman

2 assumptions

1. Any reaction to a stimulus is followed by an opposite reaction called an opponent process

Example: being startled by a sudden sound is followed by relaxation and relief

1. After repeated exposure to the same stimulus the initial reaction weakens and the opponent process becomes quicker and stronger

Connection between motivation an emotion

Motivation can intensify emotion

Emotions can also create motivation

People want to feel happiness so they engage in behavior they think will lead to those emotions

The Nature of Emotion:

Joy, Sorrow, Anger, Fear, Love, Hate

Defining Characteristics of Emotion:

Psychological and physiological reactions

Subjective aspects

1. Emotions are temporary short duration

Moods are longer lasting

1. Emotions can be positive or negative or mixed
2. Emotions can alter thought processes by directing attention

Negative emotions = fear can narrow emotion

Positive- can widen our thinking (think broadly)

1. Emotions can trigger action tendency or the motivation to behave in certain ways

Positive emotions joy, pride lead to playfulness and creativity and exploration of the environment

Negative Emotions- sadness and fear promote withdrawal from threatening situations; anger might lead to actions that lead to revenge…

Biology of Emotion:

Involved in

Generation of Emotion

Experience of Emotion

Autonomic Nervous System

ANS is not connected to brain areas affecting consciousness

Arousal accompanies emotions

Arousal to take action

Increase blood flow and glucose to vital organs

1. Sympathetic Nervous System
2. Norepinephrine (Fight or Flight)
3. Parasympathetic Nervous System
4. Acetylcholine (slow down)

Brain mechanisms:

Limbic System

Amygdala –

• active with recognition of emotional expressions
• Damaged amygdala causes problem in recognizing emotional facial expressions
• Also perception of emotionally charged words

2 Hemispheres deal with Expressions, Experience, Perception

Right Hemisphere

Active in:

• Laughing at jokes,
• Naming emotions from facial expressions

Left hemisphere is active with making left side facial expressions

Theories of Emotion:

Questions:

Do autonomic experience create emotion?

Or, Are autonomic responses due to emotion?

How are emotional reactions affected by the way we think about events?

Main Theories are:

Biological:

1. William James
2. Walter Cannon

Cognitive:

1. Stanley Schacter
2. Richard Lazarus

James’ Peripheral Theory (also supported by Carl Lange- AKA James-Lange Theory):

Late 1800’s

You see a bear and you run- said you are afraid because you run

Perception of the bear, causes physiological response and then the fear follows.

“once you strip away all physiological responses, nothing remains of the experience. Emotion, must therefore be the result of experiencing a particular set of physiological responses.”

More Detail:

• A perception affects the cerebral cortex
• The brain interprets a situation and automatically directs a set of PERIPHERAL physiological changes
• Unconscious until we become aware of bodily changes then we experience emotion
• Implication- each particular emotion is created by a particular pattern of physiological response
• Fear from one
• Anger from another

According to James there is no emotion center to the brain, not linked to a neurotransmitter

Evaluating James Theory:

Certain emotional states are associated with certain patterns of autonomic activity (supports James)

Example- Blood Flow to hands and feet increases with anger and decreases with fear

Some autonomic activity is also associated with specific emotional facial expressions.