Historical “Schools of Thought”

Insight into Historiography

School / Description / Example
Annales / Considers great trends over long periods of time; often uses geography to set the scene / The 17th century had a “mini” ice age which led to poor harvests and decline in population
Consensus / Emphasizes the basic unity of American values and downplays conflict; argues the US has very little class tensions or any other kind of profound division – this trait is a sign of American greatness (Popular post-WWII; 1950’s-1960’s; challenges Progressivists and the New Left) / The American Revolution and other political movements stress Americans have been united in policies that promote political, religious and economic freedom and opposition to tyranny.
New Left / Where consensus historians emphasized American unity, New Left scholars call attention to how America has been divided by race, class, and gender. (“Old Left” focused too much on class inequality and NOT race/gender) – popularized in the 1960s-1970s / The age of Imperialism and conquest of Pacific territories showed the American government had ideals of racial superiority and wanted to keep certain “undesirables” (i.e. natives, blacks, women) oppressed in society.
Marxism / History is dominated by class struggle - Focuses on the relationship between classes, who controls the economy and how the economy operates; examines class in terms of revolution or change / Marxist historians view the primary cause of the Spanish-American War as a class struggle between Afro-Cubans and the Spanish elite. Also, the oppressive nature of capitalist-owned sugar plantations (both by Spain and U.S.)
Progressivism / Emphasized class tensions and material interests as key forces shaping U.S. histories; promotes positive social reform (New Left carries a lot of progressive themes) – popularized at beginning of 20th cent. / President Roosevelt supported women’s rights, environmental protection, child labor laws, anti-monopoly laws, and food-service labeling.
Orthodox / The traditional, more accepted and popularized interpretation of historical events. / In the 1950’s, the Cold War was a conflict started by the aggression of the USSR.
Revisionism / Refers to a scholar who is revising a previous interpretation of an event / The Cold War was started by a mutual desire between the US and USSR to influence political and economic ideas. This competition escalated with both countries’ intervention in foreign affairs.
Structuralism
Intentionalism / Emphasizes the power of broad and deep societal structures that shape society (capitalism, patriarchy, etc). These structures are powerful, wide-reaching, and hard to change. Looks at elements of human culture through their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure. Downplays the ability of individuals or ideas and rejects the concept of human freedom/choice ; instead human behavior is determined by societal structures. / Hitler’s role in the Nazi party was over-played and the Fuhrer had no long-term plan. Instead, Hitler was an opportunist who made decisions expediently and spontaneously, often to maintain his own grip on power. The Nazi leader’s political brilliance and charisma were public perceptions rather than inherent traits. The political and economic turmoil of the 1920s and early 1930s helped to feed a collective view that Germany needed a national saviour, a political ‘strong man’ with a captivating personality and strength of will.
Post-modernism
Post-structuralism / Seemingly straightforward concepts of identity (“I am an American”) are full of complications and contradictions; these terms have no fixed meaning. There are limits to distinctions; for example, nobody can prove any “cause and effect” relationship. You question the concept of reality itself. (Popular in 1970s/1980s – controversial!) / History is NOT black and white! Studying gay rights is NOT just gay vs. straight; there are no straightforward concepts of identity (gay rights could be supported by straight people); concepts like these are obscure and have a lot of gray areas
Feminism / A set of values held by historians (typically on the left) who see history as a way to combat or understand patriarchy (i.e. the political, social, economic forces that granted power to men and limited women’s equality) / In the post-Civil War U.S., women were not given the right to vote even though blacks were because it would add too much voice and power to the left and marginalize Republican ideals.