Program Sustainability: Critical Factors For Chemistry-Based Technology Programs
Refereed Paper
Backus, Bridgid; Russ-Eft, Darlene
Chemistry-based professions are integral components of industrial research, development, and manufacturing. Equipping the chemistry-based technology workforce will require the collaboration of industry, academia, professional societies, and workforce organizations on activities that promote the education and career development of chemical technicians (Drumm, Hinkle, & Quenzer, 2006; Frame, Leaym, Millspaugh, & Wickham, 2006; Friedman, Marine, & Neils, 2006). Community colleges have emerged as workforce development engines (Perez, 2007) providing the training necessary for the nation to strengthen its competitiveness in the global economy (Gruber, 2000). Professional technical training is a major component of workforce development, with nearly half of the community college degree students enrolled in professional technical programs (Lederer, 2005).
Sustaining technological education programs in community colleges is vitally important to the economic well-being of the United States (Advanced Technological Education Centers Impact, 2006). Chemistry-based technology training (CBTT) programs have become more prominent as the petrochemical, biomedical, pharmaceutical, and other industries have grown in importance. With a growing demand for products and the globalization of the manufacturing industry, our nation cannot afford to be inefficient in the development, operation, or economic sustainability of its workforce development programs.
Technology training programs contribute to an important segment of the workforce development mission of community colleges. CBTT programs at community colleges provide an education that leads to well-paying jobs for employees (Rickey, 1999), profits for business and industry (Settle, 2000), community prosperity, and global competitiveness. These outcomes imply the need to recognize the significance of the economic sustainability of CBTT programs in community colleges. Once committed, community colleges have an undeniable obligation to be informed of and understand the importance of the factors necessary to sustain CBTT programs. Acknowledging that community colleges are the primary providers of technical training in the U.S., the purpose of this study was to identify, examine, and analyze the most significant factors associated with economic sustainability of CBTT programs
Theoretical Background
A catalyst for gathering information for this chapter originated in the ChemTechLinks report, “Critical Issues and Effective Practices in Chemistry-Based Laboratory Technology Education” (ACS, 2006b). The Oregon State University library was used to search for relevant studies related to CBTT programs and sustainability using online databases (i.e., ERIC, Dissertation Abstracts, E-Journals, and Academic Search Premier). Yahoo and Google search engines were also used. The following key words and their variations, singly and in combination, were used: alliances, chemical, community college, education, faculty, leadership, marketing, partnerships, programs, technical, technician, technology, training, sustainability, vocational, and workload. Relevant articles, Web sites, dissertations, and books were identified from this search. Other literature sources were obtained from the bibliographies of documents, conference abstracts, and attendance at national ACS conferences. More details on the literature search process can be found in Author 1 and Author 2 (2010).
Chemistry-Based Technicians
The professional status of chemistry-based technicians, previously viewed as low-skilled, improved when the ACS’s Committee on Technician Affairs was established in 1964 (Engleman, 2004). The Division of Chemical Technicians (TECH) was established as a full division of the ACS in 1994, and, in 2001, full membership in ACS was granted to chemical technicians having a two-year associate’s degree and five years of work experience (Dalton, 2004).
Recently there have been considerable changes in responsibilities and expectations for chemistry-based technicians. The workplace environment for technicians is changing because of a combination of scientific, economic, and societal reasons. New technology, economic uncertainty, and the changing patterns of businesses and globalization are factors in this change (ACS, 2005). Chemistry-based technicians are no longer confined to traditional laboratory assistant roles but are now members of industrial teams, participating in projects, operating and maintaining sophisticated equipment, and performing chemical analyses (Marasco, 2005). With the rapid advancement of technology, job training in a specific chemical laboratory technique or instrument will not adequately prepare technicians (ACS, 2005).
Definition of Sustainability
Sustainability is a concept that includes several different meanings. Goodland (2002) identified three of these meanings: (a) environmental sustainability, (b) social sustainability, and (c) economic sustainability. Environmental sustainability focuses on developing renewable and nonrenewable resources in order to promote a healthy planet. Social sustainability focuses on creating shared rules, laws, values, and information leading to equal rights and well-being. Economic sustainability focuses on continuing activities that fulfill capital needs of individuals, institutions, and organizations.
In a broad context, sustainability refers to a program’s continuation or its permanence (Lawrenz, Keiser, & Lavoie, 2003; Shediac-Rizkallah & Bone, 1998). Akerlund (2000) suggested that a sustainable program must exhibit high quality, provide data to document success, be community-based, and meet funding priorities. Shediac-Rizkallah and Bone (1998) distilled three major factors from their review of literature on sustainability, as including: (a) project design, (b) factors within the organizational setting, and (c) factors in the broader community environment. More recently, Scheirer (2005) listed five important factors affecting the sustainability of training programs: (a) A program can be modified over time; (b) a “champion” is present; (c) a program “fits” with its organization, mission and procedures; (d) benefits to staff members or students are readily perceived; and (e) stakeholders in other organizations provide support. Scheirer found substantial convergence and suggested that project sustainability is possible, under the right conditions, by a blending or interrelationship of factors.
Certainly, economic program sustainability is relevant to the education and training programs of the chemistry-based workforce. It has been found that some of the CBTT programs in operation in the early 2000s are no longer in operation (ACS, 2006a). While establishing a training program is one issue, keeping one in existence is a different issue. People involved in technical training programs want a more practical definition of sustainability. They want to know if and why “their” program will endure (Altman et al., 1991). This implies that individuals facilitating technical training programs need to understand the relative importance of the factors and their interrelationships associated with program sustainability.
Factors Associated with Program Sustainability
The findings of the 2004 ChemTechLinks conference, including participants from high schools, two-year colleges, industry, and government, provided an initial framework for the present study (ACS, 2006b). The initial set of issues were refined into a set of nine issues that were explored further in a subsequent survey was sent to all known CBTT training programs in 35 states, the District of Columbia, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico (ACS, 2006b).
As described in greater detail in Author1 and Author2 (2010), the nine identified issues were clustered and condensed into four major clustered categories of factors of (a) partnerships, (b) employer and student educational goals, (c) faculty and their resources, and (d) community perceptions and marketing strategies. (See Figure 1 below.)
Figure 1: ChemTechLinks nine critical issues condensed into four clustered categories.
Based on further literature review (Author 1 & Author 2, 2010), the four clustered categories were elaborated with sub-factors relevant to CBTT program sustainability, see Figure 2. In addition, this framework was used in the development of the data collection instrument.
Figure 2. Conceptual framework used in the present study.
This framework is consistent with the ChemTechLinks work (ACS, 2006b) and with the literature. In addition, it should be noted that the factors identified by Shediac-Rizkallah & Bone (1998) and by Scheirer (2005) agree to some extent with these clusters.Furthermore, Scheier (2005) pointed out the significance of determining the relative importance of factors and the interrelationships, suggesting the need for the current study of CBTT program sustainability.
Methods
The purpose of this study was to identify the most significant factors associated with economic sustainability of two-year chemistry-based technology training programs. The following sections describe the data collection methods and analysis procedures.
Data Collection Methods
A cross-sectional survey was used to examine the most significant factors associated with economic sustainability of two-year CBTT programs. The cross-sectional survey was designed to obtain information on program characteristics and the perceptions of program participants regarding the relationships of the factors influencing sustainability
Data were collected using an electronic survey from CBTT program participants across the U.S. in order to evaluate the relationships between the independent variables (clustered categories and their sub-factors) and the dependent variable (sustainability). In the design of the current study, the term “sub-factor” was used to indicate a procedure, event, or policy that contributed to a resulting characteristic or attribute of a CBTT program.
Dependent variable. In the current study the dependent variable was the sustainability of CBTT programs. Sustainability was chosen as the dependent variable after its importance became evident from the critical issues report from ChemTechLinks (ACS, 2006b) and a review of the literature (Author 1 & Author 2, 2010). For the current study sustainability was defined as continued program activities with observable benefits or outcomes for stakeholders. This definition was developed from the research indicated in the review of literature.
Independent variables. For the current study, a review of related literature identified variables related to the sustainability of CBTT programs: (a) partnerships, (b) employer and student educational goals, (c) faculty and their resources, and (d) community perceptions and marketing strategies. These independent variables will be referred to as “clustered categories” of factors because they include several sub-factors related to the sustainability of CBTT programs. A cluster is a grouping of factors that are assumed to have strong associations within the category but minimal associations with factors in other categories (StatSoft, 2004). Table 1 provides an example of the cluster, Partnerships, and some of the sub-factors.
Table 1: Example of Operational Definitions for the Clustered Category of Partnerships and the Associated Sub-Factors
Independent VariablesOperational Definition
Partnerships Cooperative efforts or agreements between colleges and business and industry to pool resources for mutually acceptable purposes in CBTT programs.
Responsive collegeCollege’s reaction to industry’s training needs.
Promotion of partnershipsCollege’s influence and activity in the development of partnerships with business and industry.
President’s involvement inThe college president’s support in strengthening
partnershipsthe effectiveness of partnerships with business and industry.
The instrument. The survey instrument requested background and demographic information, such as the respondent’s name and job title, the college name, description of the program, the program’s current activity, number of students enrolled, years in operation, and characterization for the future demand for CBTT program graduates. In order to determine the magnitude of sustainability, respondents were asked to select a rating from a five-point Likert scale that characterized their program. The survey instrument also consisted of 31 Likert scale rating statements, one item for a ranking of the importance of the clustered categories, and one open-ended question.
Study participants. The ACS, in conjunction with the NSF funded project ChemTechLinks, publishes the Directory of Chemistry-Based Technology Programs annually. The directory provides contact information for CBTT programs designed to prepare students for chemistry-based careers. Even though the directories list both four-year and two-year college programs, only two-year programs in the U.S. were considered in the current study. The target population for the current study consisted of two faculty and two administrators from 134 two-year CBTT programs that were listed in the ACS directories (ACS, 2006a; ACS, 2007; ACS 2008). Althoughinterested in obtaining the names of two faculty members and two administrators from each college; it was found that many of the smaller programs had less than four individuals who were knowledgeable about their CBTT program. In these cases, all individuals were sent the survey. Therefore, the target population consisted of those individuals who were actually sent surveys, and the sample consisted of those participants who returned completed surveys.
Survey dissemination and data collection procedures. Each of the 134 CBTT program contacts listed in the ACS directories were sent an email request for the names of two instructors and two administrators having knowledge of their CBTT program. Instructors and administrators whose names were provided were contacted through email and asked to participate in the current study. Each survey request was sent individually so that multiple recipients did not show in the email addresses (Dillman, 2007). Those individuals who agreed to participate in the study were provided with an Informed Consent Document and the opportunity to complete the survey.The correspondence included directions for downloading and completing the survey, saving the information, and returning the survey to this researcher via attachment to the email. All but one participant returned the completed survey as an attachment to an email. The other participant sent the completed survey via U.S. mail. Follow up emails were sent to non-respondents encouraging their participation in the study.
When surveys were returned, hard copies were printed, the surveys were coded, and the raw data was logged into an Excel spreadsheet. The data were double-checked for the accuracy of the input of data by two other individuals. The hard copy of the survey was filed in a notebook as a backup in case of computer failure. The respondents’ email was then deleted. This process was to ensure the protection of anonymity of the respondents.
Finally, a thank you note, via email, was sent to the participants for their assistance in the study. This process, although time consuming, provided for a more personal contact with each participant and allowed for questions to be asked of this researcher regarding the study.
Data Analysis
All of the quantitative raw data collected from the survey responses were analyzed using the Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics were used to describe the sample characteristics and the participant responses in terms of survey rankings and ratings of the independent variables (four clustered categories and their sub-factors) as they relate to the dependent variable (CBTT program sustainability).
Factor analyses were conducted to determine the major factors. The current study used an oblique rotation to determine the best clustered patterns for the sub-factors relating to program sustainability.
Besides yielding more information, oblique rotation is justified on epistemological grounds. One justification is that [the] real world should not be treated as though phenomena coagulate in unrelated clusters. As phenomena can be interrelated in clusters, so the clusters themselves can be related. Oblique rotation allows this reality to be reflected in the loadings of the factors and their correlations. (Rummel, n.d).
Validity of the instrument.Validity of the instrument refers to the relevance and appropriateness of the design or measurement for the research question under investigation for drawing accurate conclusions (Vogt, 2007). Evidence for validity of the current study is closely connected to the survey instrument; including test content, response processes, internal structure, relationships of variables, and the consequences of the survey findings (Joint Committee on Standards for Educational and Psychological Research and Testing, 1999).
Test content refers to the format, wording, procedures for the administration, as well as the ratings and rankings of the survey items. The current study established test content validity of the instrument using three strategies: (a) Development of the instrument based on a conceptual framework from the literature review, (b) a review of the proposed survey instrument by a panel of experts, and (c) a pilot study. The legitimacy of the test content of the survey questions was supported through the review of literature, previous surveys by professional-technical organizations, and consultation with a panel of experts in the field of chemistry-based education and training.
The use of the ChemTechLinks reports, in addition to other literature, provided an assessment of what factors should be further investigated in the current study. After the development of the survey, it was reviewed by a panel of experts; two ACS administrators associated with chemistry-based training programs, a community college chemistry instructor, and a physics instructor from a former CBTT program. The experts were asked to critique the survey statements as to the format, representation of the chosen factors relative to program sustainability, the relationships between the sections of the survey and the constructs, and the wording of the questions. Modifications were made to the survey based on the recommendations of the panel’s critique. Modifications included additional wording for clarity, arrangement of questions, and the inclusion of demographic information. Furthermore, following the expert panel review, a pilot study of the survey was conducted with four community college full-time and one part-time physical science faculty. The pilot study served to provide even further evaluation of the test content and assisted in ensuring that the administration of the survey’s electronic process was without flaws. The survey was sent individually to program participants by this researcher via email. The survey was sent as an attachment, with instructions for downloading, completing, saving, and returning the instrument to this researcher. This method was used to maximize the response rate for the study. In addition, the survey was reviewed and approved by the Oregon State University Institutional Review Board (IRB).
The internal structure of the survey instrument consisted of several components related to the underlying construct and provided evidence for answering the study’s research questions. For example, while the items of each of the four clustered categories were part of a homogeneous group, each was distinct from each other. The design of the survey instrument allowed for interpretation of survey responses on a single-factor basis, or through possible interrelationships between or among the factors. Relationships among responses of four groups organized by program enrollments and positions of the participants (large and small program faculty and large and small program administrators) provided further insight into whether or not agreements or disagreements were consistent with interpretations of the perceptions.