Malmö University International Relations

Malmö University International Relations

Global Political Studies Spring 2011

International Relations Adviser: Anders Melin

The Influences ofKurdish Question on Turkish Foreign Policy

In the post-Cold War Era

H. NUR OZCAN

860714-T341

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT

ABBREVIATIONS

Chapter I

I1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………...4

I1.1. Background ….……...……………………………………………………………….. 5

I3. Research Aim and Question ……………………………………………………….……. 7

I4. Methodology and Literature Review …………………………………………………... 8

I5. Delimitation………………………………………………………………………….…... 9

Chapter II

II2. Theoretical Framework

II2.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………...…………… 10

II2.1 Realist Approach ……..………………………………………………………….. 11

II2.2 Soft Power Approach ….………………………………………………………… 13

Chapter III

III3. Turkish Foreign Policy and the Kurdish Question After the Cold War

III3.1. A Brief Introduction to the Kurdish Question in Turkey ………….……………16

III3.2. Turkish Foreign Policy Dimensions Between late 1980s to 2002……………... 19

III3.3. Strategic Depth Approach …………………………………………………..….22

III3.4. Influences of Kurdish Question …………………………………………...... 27

III3.4.1. Regional Influences…………………………………………………… 27

III3.4.2. Relations with Western Bloc and Russia……………………………… 30

Chapter IV

IV1. Concluding Remarks ….……………………………………………………………... 35

IV2. Executive Summary …………………………...………………………………………37

REFERENCES

ABSRACT

The end of Cold War and aftermath has brought many challenges to the states. Ethnic problems increased dramatically, and became the most significant issue in the agenda of states. Even though, foreign policy refers to external relations of states, most scholars agree that there are many dimensions which affect foreign policy decision of policy makers except structural influences like internal challenges. Foreign policy has been as an extension of domestic policy and any transformation in domestic policy has also affected the foreign policy doctrine. While Kurdish question seems to be as domestic, later it organically infused the foreign policy thinking of contemporary Turkish policymakers.In fact the Kurdish problem provides suitable position tobe used against Turkey for foreign power involvement in Turkish internal affairs as well as limits its capacities in foreign affairs. Last but not least, by affecting Turkey’s position, the cluster of this problems create a certain number of deadlocks in its foreign affairs, and even create pressures on it and considerable risks in terms of national interest and security. In this context, this research survey aims to analyze the factors of foreign policy making in order to evaluate the Kurdish issue’s effects on Turkish foreign policy especially after the 1980s.

Key words:

Chapter I

I1. Introduction

The historical visit of Turkish Prime Minister to the Kurdish Regional Government (KRG) in the north of Iraq in March 2011 has been one of the most significant signs and result of the influences of Kurdish question on Turkish foreign policy (TFP) in the period of post-Cold War. Whilst Turkey had always been anxious about any Kurdish autonomy in Iraq just before a couple of years ago, now it has recently noticed that the Kurdish issue has already potential to impact its internal dynamics but at the same time foreign policies. Therefore, it has had to consider improving bilateral relations gradually. In fact, this kind of changing in TFP is strongly related with Turkey's new foreign policy approach which has employed since the end of the Cold War but particularly since the 1999. However, this transformation in TFP has brought some challenges to Turkey that was suppressed since the foundation of Turkish Republic and thus, Turkey faced the Kurdish question. Despite the fact that Kurdish Question is a domestic problem for Turkey, it has casted a long shadow on the formulation and conduct of TFP. In this context, Barkley suggests that “ all Turkish foreign policy priorities have become subservient to this issue or that other countries' perceptions of and behavior toward Ankara determined by” (Barkley, 1996). Indeed, the Kurds stands in the midpoint and refers as a “foothold” of the Middle East which surrounded by Iran, Turkey, Iraq, Syria and Russia. Hence, it’s not absurd to define the Kurdistan geography as a possible clash of national interest area.

Therefore, Kurdish question has been a national security problem for Turkey even it stands on the top of the foreign and domestic policy agenda. Thanks to traditional traces of Turkish political understanding like ignoring and denying the problem, Turkey could not save a serious attempt during the 1990s until the end of decade. This decade has been considered as the most crucial and deadlocked period for Kurdish question, but the significant developments came out after the 1999. Some important developments were the capturing of Kurdish terrorist group (PKK)’s leader, the candidacy announcement of European Union (EU) membership in December 1999, and the Islamic rooted party Justice and Development Party's (JDP) electoral victory in 2002 that launched a “Kurdish Initiative” in other word “Democratic Opening” process in summer 2009 to provide constitutional rights of Kurdish minority, and removing PKK's terrorist activities. The government has also been the source of “new” TFP approach which emphasizes more active and multi-dimensional policies than any time in the history of Turkey in the international scene. Unlike the policies which were employed by the policymakers in the past, Turkey has become to seek de-securitization of important domestic issues most importantly towards Kurdish problem especially under the pressure of European Union membership process and the democratization efforts (Kramer, 2010).

I1.2. Background

In the early 1980s, the collapsing of Soviet Union and former Yugoslavia, have brought to new challenges to the states and these developments led to face the multi-ethnic and multi-cultural demands all over the world, “the rising tide of cultural pluralism and “the disuniting of the nation” in other words as C. Young suggested (Kirisci 2003: 273). In particular, Turkey also has faced an increasing question about its national identity from its Kurdish population. In fact, Kurdish issue has came to agenda during the foundation of new Republic, however the significant signals was given with the emergence of PKK (Kurdistan Worker’s Party) in the 1984 has led to the deaths of thousands of civilians and the displacement of masses of people, as well as severe. The internalization of the problem started especially at the end of the first Gulf War in 1991 and it caused for coming to control a significant proportion of Turkish foreign policy.

There are two main approaches to consider Kurdish issue in Turkey in which one of can be seen as extreme conservatives or statists whose had seen the problem as externally driven, thus Turkey has to pursue basically a military to control Kurdish minority, and the others are called as the moderate liberals and pro-reformists those considered Kurdish issue as the problem which caused due to denial of Kurdish cultural and ethnic identity, thusthey advocatethe political reforms and support democracy and pluralism in Turkey. For instance, economic reformsshould aim to achieve greater development in the east and southeast of Turkey where the Kurdish population live. Unsurprisinglythe statist approach has been dominated long years on decision making organs in both domestic and foreign policy. It is necessary to take a look this understanding cautiously to see their their influences in Turkish politics. As an example “Sevres Syndrome” or some define as“Sevres Phobia” is a term which based on Sevres Treaty signed in 1920 between Ottoman Empire and Allies of First World War, but never ratified by Turkish parliament. According to the claims,Turkey is surrounded by enemies (the neighbor countries, the West) who are trying to control and manipulating of both domestic and foreign relations of Turkey. Regarding with Kurdish problem, the PKK had always been identified as an externally-supported organization whose purpose was to weaken and divide Turkey (Kirisci, 2004). The perspectives and taboos towards Kurdish issue in Turkey both in public and state started to change by the 1999.At the same time, the reformistsshifted their influences to improve relations with the West and implicitly about Kurdish problem. The EU membership process has forced Turkey to introduce political reforms about the solution of Kurdish issue due to liberalization process in public sphere which led to strengthen the sub-national identities (Bacik, 2010).

In brief, Turkey has begun to a new era at the end of 1990s with developments both in domestic and foreign relations. In this period, the influence of statists approach has eroded on policymaking, while moderate liberal approach gained influence in addressing to the Kurdish problem. Correspondingly together the EU, reformistsemphasize on democracy and pluralism, the rights of Kurds as individuals Turkish citizens rather than group or minority rights. However, democratization process might be at risk, if hard-liners would become dominant again and such an outcome would be deadlocked the problem for Turkey (Kirisci 2003: 303). Although all developments mentioned above, we cannot claim that security-driven statist approach completely abolished from Turkish politics. In state institutions, parliament, and public, they are ready to rise again and exploit any chaos that comes out from terrorist activities. At the same time, in Kurds have extreme groups and moderates on their own and some of them are in favor of an independent Kurdish state which would cover a part of Turkish territory; another half demands an autonomous Kurdish region, political and cultural rights in the constitution. In this context, if Turkey’s foreign relations are related with its Kurdish problem, no doubt the solution does not seem to overcome smoothly at least in the country.

Except domestic actors, until recent years Ankara has blamed external powers for somehow their involving to the problem and support Kurdish side. While the PKK has been almost universally branded as a terrorist organization, the aggressive strategies toward Kurdish insurgency and human rights violations have been increasingly bearing the wrong results. Some of the external influences dealing with Kurdish issue can be juxtaposed as Russia, Syria, Iran and Greece which are ready to use this issue against Ankara. From this point of view, the troubling times with Syria in 1998and Russia’s desire to access to the Gulf region are some of the threats for Turkey from its neighbors. For Turkey’s friendsand foes in Europe and the U.S. the Kurds may increasingly appear as “underdogs” and thereforecreate a moral dilemma (Barkley and Fuller 1997). Internationally recognition of Kurdish problem has appeared especially during the First Gulf War in 199, and the war led to face the humanitarian aspect of Kurdish problem by international community and Turkey. Hence, even though the conflict has been ongoing in Turkey since 1984, Turkey found itself in a situation that it is not possible to ignore anymore the Kurdish problem in international level.

I1.3. Research Aim and Question

The Kurdish question has remained unresolved and a challengefor Turkish national interests. It’s been seen as a significant factor which cannot be ignored in the construction process of foreign policy. Therefore, this paper purposes to analyze the influences of Kurdish Question on TFP after the end of Cold War along with theoretical background of contemporary TFP. Kurdish Question is very critical for TFP like in domestic sphere, because it has begun to be achilles heel of Turkey in foreign relations with especially the EU, the surrounding regions like the Middle East, particularly Iraq, Syria and Iran, even with Russia and the United States. Apart from international actors, Turkey's national security policy, the efforts to be regional soft power, energy policies (such as Nabucco Project), and domestic and sustaining regional stability are strongly related with Kurdish problem. Also, Kurdish question covers three countries except Turkey those are Iraq, Syria and Iran. In this context, it is necessary to evaluate that question from domestic, regional, and international aspects to understand how Turkish foreign policy actions are affected by the Kurdish question. At this conjunction, this thesis aims to evaluate the following questions; How has Turkish Foreign Policy influenced from the Kurdish Question since the end of the Cold War?, To what extent the Kurdish Question has been perceived by foreign policy makerssince the late-1980s until present?

I1.3. Methodology and Literature Review

The term case studymethodsrefer to both within-case analysis of single cases and comparisonsamong a small number of cases. Bennett states “Many influential research findings in political science have come from single-case studies” (Bennett, 2004: 19-55). This research has chose a single case study thereby evaluating theories from the International Relations (IR) literature based on the systemic, domestic, and individual levels, as well as theories based on the arguments of scholars and policymakers.

Most case study researchers have argued that single-case studies can provide tests that can support or refute theories. The case study methodology is used in order to provide an insight into the advantages of this research. Naturally, it provides a depth analysis of International Relations research, and has been used since the emergence of the discipline.Typically the case study methodology is used to answer questions like how or why and there is no or limited control over selected events. In that sense, this methodology refers that contemporary events are focused and the questions are also constructed by how question. Theoretical orientation guided to the analysis and empirical findings that have formed the design of the case study (Yin, 1994). Also, the case study method has been used in order to provide basis for the application of theoretical perspectives or ideas and understand the complexity of case with this way. As suggested, case study method is a multi-perspective analyzes which means that the consideration of not just the voice and perspective of the actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors and the interaction between them (Tellis, 1997). Hence, this research also emphasis on the interaction between foreign and domestic circumstances and actors.

In the literature material, it’s been found many articles about contemporary Turkish Foreign Policy and most of them underline the periods that are the end of 1980s and the early 90s, as well as TFP after 1999. In this context, the numbers of articles has been evaluated in order to analyze Turkish foreign policy directions and the effects of Kurdish problem since the end of the Cold War as secondary sources. In addition, news and opinions from magazines and newspapers is used to catch the ongoing developments. As primary sources the speeches and declarations of Turkish President, Prime Minister and Foreign Minister as well as other political actors’ has included to thesis in addition to the European Union progress report on Turkey, and governmental institutions’ reports related with case study. To reach the sources the academic journals, and the academic databases like JSTOR, Project Muse, Cambridge Journals Online etc. are used besides the books and websites.

I1.4. Delimitation

In order to consider the importance of Kurdish question in TFP, thesis examines the developments of Turkey’s foreign relations after the internalization of this question especially after the First Gulf War. Furthermore the ongoing solution efforts and some domestic developments linked with the topic have been included to the paper.

In the limitation of this survey, it is not examined the deep history and the evolution of the TFP and its Kurdish issue but only consists the theories which “underlie especially contemporary TFP, and the considerations of the international and domestic factors and parameters those related with title. The period between 1993 and 1999 is not analyzed specifically due to instable political environment internally, rather focused on the critical points and aftermath. In addition, the Cold War era also will not be deeply considered except emergence and rising of Kurdish rebellion and showing the traditional aspect of TFP toward the Kurdish question. Also, survey does not evaluate a description or deep analysis of the political identity, or identity based explanations but might be mentioned in order to show the roots of problem. The point of thesis is to prove the serious role of Kurdish question on Turkish foreign policy except other variables, in that sense paper will be neither ethnic based analysis nor a comparative analysis with other ethnic questions in the world.

Chapter II

II.1. Theoretical Framework

The general consideration of foreign policy has been defined as “outcome of complex optimization process at the national and international level” (Ozturk, 2009).Turkish foreign policy traditionally has been based on realist point of view that emphasizes on the anarchic structure of international politics. International relations are seen as a win-lose game in which the outcome is often determined by the “hard power” capabilities and use of coercion. States need to create a strong military capability, prepare themselves for win-lose outcomes. The decisions of foreign policy should not be contentious and national security should be prior in both economic and political issues. All in all, the Kurdish question and the security challenges because of the existence of the PKK fueled Turkey’s importance on military capabilities and methods rather than democratic governance. In brief, this research uses both realist theory as a traditional aspect, and also discusses liberalism’s soft power theory as its sub-field in order to evaluate Turkey’s foreign policy strategies after 2002. Regarding with Kurdish question, I’ll try to highlight theoretical background, dimensions and the standing point of TFP towards the Kurdish issue.