Keypoint Revision: Standard Grade History

KEYPOINT REVISION: STANDARD GRADE HISTORY

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

POPULATION AND MIGRATION 1B1

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

STANDARDS OF LIVING 1B2

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

AGRICULTURE 1B3

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

COAL MINING 1B4

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

RAILWAYS 1B5

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

HOUSING 1B6

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

HEALTH 1B7

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN 1830 - 1930

KEY POINTS FOR LEARNING

VOTING REFORM&THE SUFFRAGETTES 1B8

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN: l830-1930s

POPULATION AND MIGRATION 1B1

BACKGROUND

Between 1830 and 1930 the population of Britain grew rapidly and there was a large- scale movement of people from the countryside to the towns. Information about population comes from the national census. This was begun in 1801 and takes place every ten years. The census is a very reliable, detailed and accurate source of information. Between 1831 and 1931 the population of Britain increased from 16.3 million to 45 million. Some of the changes in Scotland’s population are shown in the table below.

SCOTTISH POPULATION

1830 1930

Total Population / 2.3 million / 4.8 million
Birth Rate / 30.3 / 15.1
Death Rate / 22.4 / 11.6
Life Expectancy / 34 / 65

The main cause of population growth before 1870 was the increase in the birth rate.

People in industrial towns began to marry younger and have larger families.

Until 1870 the death rate was high because of poor diet, living and working conditions and disease. Many children died before they reached the age of five.

Before 1850 doctors had little knowledge about what caused disease and could do little to prevent or cure illnesses. The exception was vaccination for smallpox.

After 1850 medical knowledge improved. Lister invented antiseptics and the work of Pasteur and Koch led to the discovery that bacteria caused and spread disease.

The main reasons for the decline in deaths after 1870 were a better diet, clean water supplies, improved sanitation, better housing and improved personal hygiene

After 1880 the birth rate fell because people wanted a better standard of living, children could no longer work. In the 1920’s contraception became available.

In 1830 around 70% of the population lived in rural areas, by 1930 this had fallen to 20%. New farming methods forced people to seek work in the industrial towns.

The industrial towns attracted many young people. They chose to leave rural areas because they could earn higher wages in the new industries.

Scotland’s population increased as a result of Irish immigration. They moved to escape poverty and starvation after the potato famine of the 1 840s.

Between 1830 and 1930 many people emigrated, e.g. during the Highland Clearances. There was also some immigration - Poles, Jews, Italians and Lithuanians.

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN: l830-1930s

STANDARDS OF LIVING1B2

BACKGROUND

An individual’s standard of living depends on a number of factors. The most important of these is the amount of money they have to spend (income/wages). This will determine how well off they are in terms of, housing, diet, health, clothing, possessions, education and whether they are able to save money for the future. By 1900 Britain was the richest country in the world.

Despite this wealth a large section of the British people lived lives of misery and poverty. The working classes had a very poor standard of living. Wages were low and in most families everyone had to work to keep the family fed and housed. The unemployed had to go into a workhouse if they could not support themselves.

In the 19th century the growth of population meant that there were large numbers of peoplelooking for work. Employers could pay workers very low wages.

Workers housing in the towns was usually a single room in a tenement. In the Countryside but-and -ben cottages and bothies were common. (See note 1B6)

The diet of most workers was made up of bread and potatoes and tea or water. Fresh meat, vegetables and dairy produce were rarely eaten. Food was often adulterated.

Most workers suffered from poor health as a result of poor diet, living and working conditions and epidemic disease. (See RF- 1B7)

Clothing was often second hand and most people only had one set of clothes. They were rarely washed and became infested with lice. Children often had no shoes to wear.

Most families had few possessions, perhaps a table and a few chairs. Many families did not even have beds and slept on straw sacks on the floor.

Education was made compulsory in 1870. Until then most children had to work from a young age. After 1870 children most children left school at 11 or 12 years old.

Saving money was impossible for most families. They had to use all they had each week to pay rent and buy food. Many people took in lodgers to make ends meet.

The unemployed had to go into WORKHOUSES. Families were split up, discipline was strict, the food was poor and people were made to do hard, tedious work.

By 1930 living standards improved. There were better wages, cheaper food, Old Age Pensions, Unemployment Benefit, School meals, Council housing and Health insurance.

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN: l830-1930s

AGRICULTURE1B3

BACKGROUND

Until 1750 Scottish agriculture had changed little since the days of Wallace and Bruce. Most of the population lived in small “Ferm Touns “and farmed the land using the Runrig system. This was very wasteful and inefficient. Crop yields were very low because of continuous cultivation and animals were thin and sickly due to a lack of proper feeding.

Population growth meant that more food was needed and prices increased. Farmers and landowners could make big profits if they could grow more crops and produce more meat, milk and wool. This provided the incentive needed for change. In most parts of Scotland landowners were first to introduce improvements.

Enclosures were usually the first change. Rigs were abolished and fields were surrounded with hedges, fences or dykes. Wasteland was brought into use.

New methods of farming were introduced - crop rotations, fertilisers and new root crops gave higher yields and provided winter fodder for animals.

As a result of enclosures many small farmers were evicted and were forced to become landless labourers or move to the towns in search of work in industry.

New technology was introduced - Iron ploughs and harrows, seed-drills, scythes and reaping, threshing and winnowing machines. Steam power was common after 1850.

Machines put many labourers out of work. Many moved to the towns. Farm workers had to accept seasonal work, low pay, long hours, and hard dangerous work.

The period 1830 - 1870 was the “Golden Age of Agriculture”. Farmers made huge profits. The population benefited from increased supplies of bread, meat and milk.

After 1870 cheap wheat from the USA. Trains, steamships and refrigeration meant cheap meat and dairy produce from Argentina Holland and Denmark.

Foreign competition forced British farmers to reduce their prices and there was a depression in agriculture. Farmers who produced wheat were hit hardest

By 1914 Britain imported 60% of her food. During WWI German submarines sank many ships. The government paid subsidies to farmers to grow more wheat.

After 1918 government grants came to an end and farmers once again suffered from falling prices. Between the wars there was an increased use of tractors.

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN: l830-1930s

COAL1B4

BACKGROUND

Coal had been mined in Scotland since the middle- ages. The first mines were fairly shallow and coal was only mined from seams that were close to the surface. After 1750 there was an enormous increase in demand for coal. This was due to a number of factors

Iron smelting / Domestic fuel / Steam engines / Exports / Railways / Gas lighting

The growth of the industry can be seen in the table below

COAL PRODUCTION1830 =16 million tons1910 = 287million tons
EMPLOYMENT IN MINING1851 =219,0001910 = 1,094,000

These increases involved changes in mining technology and working conditions in mines.

Mining had always been a hard and dangerous occupation. Until 1790 many colliers were serfs. They and their families were not allowed to leave the mines.

As a result of increased demand mines had to become deeper. This increased the dangers from flooding, gas, cave-ins, and getting the coal up to the surface.

In the 19th century new technology helped to overcome these problems: - steam pumps and winding engines, Davy lamp, wire ropes, pit props, ventilation fans.

Mines were dark, damp and dangerous. Serious accidents and falls were common. Men worked as hewers, women as bearers, young children as trappers.

In 1842 the Government passed the MINES ACT. Women and children under 10 were forbidden to work underground. This was the first of many laws on mining.

After 1900 coal faced competition from new energy sources. Electricity began to replaced gas for lighting and oil and petrol engines challenged steam power.

British coal exports were hit by foreign competition. Germany and the USA could produce cheaper coal using coal cutting machines and conveyor belts.

British mines were slow to mechanise and the narrower seams of coal in Britain made the use of large machines underground impossible in some of the older coalfields.

During the war demand for coal was high and wages were increased. The government was forced to stop miners joining the army.

In the 1920s the demand for coal fell and mine owners reduced miner’s wages. This led to the General strike of 1926. The industry did not recover until World War II.

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN: l830-1930s

RAILWAYS1B5

BACKGROUND

At the start of the 19th century transport in Britain was based on roads, canals and coastal shipping. The best roads were owned by Turnpike Trusts but travellers had to pay tolls. Canals and coastal shipping carried mainly bulky, heavy goods such as coal, iron ore and other products for industry. Canals were expensive to build and could only cover a limited area. If industry was to continue to grow a better system of transport was needed which could provide cheap, fast transport for passengers and goods. Railways could open up all parts of the country and provided great benefits for farmers, industrialists and ordinary people.

The first railway ran from Stockton to Darlington. This was followed by the Liverpool to Manchester line. Britain was gripped by ‘railway mania’ in the 1830s and 1840s.

Irish navvies using picks and shovels built much of the railway system. They were wild, hard drinking men. Deaths and accidents from explosions and falling rocks were common.

There was some opposition to railways. Landowners and farmers complained the countryside would be spoiled, that sparks would set fields on fire and cows milk would go sour.

Canals and turnpike trusts lost business because of the railways. Many of these companies were forced out of business.

Passengers benefited from quick, cheap travel. Railways led to commuter suburbs, holiday resorts, national newspapers, better postal services and standard time in Britain.

Industry could transport goods and raw materials cheaply and quickly. Railways increased demand for coal, iron and steel and engineering. Thousands of new jobs were created.

Farmers could send fresh produce to the towns before it started to go off. Fertilisers and coal could be brought to farms. People in towns benefited from improved supplies of fresh food.

Railway Acts: 1844 Railway Act - 3rd class covered carriages, 1 penny per mile workmen’s fares.

1846:Railway Gauge Act- tracks to be 4.85 inches apart /1846 Act on brakes and signals.

New technology: - steam powered rock cutters by 1890s / Engineering – Forth Bridge /

Speeds; 1830 = 15mph 1930 = 50 mph. / First diesel train 1928.

In 1921 the number of railway companies was reduced from 120 to 4.

The Southern / The Great Western / The London Midland & Scottish /

The London & North Eastern Rail Co.

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN: l830-1930s

HOUSING1B6

BACKGROUND

Housing is one of the most important aspects of the lives of individuals and families. In the nineteenth century there was a massive movement of population from the countryside to the towns. This led to the rapid growth of urban areas. There were no building or planning regulations and greedy landowners and builders put up cheap shoddy buildings for profit.

In Scottish towns most working class areas contained tenement buildings of four or more stories. These were separated only by narrow closes and wynds. The streets and the backcourts were usually covered with filth and waste. In the countryside things were little better and many people lived in cold, damp cottages.

Many tenements were badly built using the cheapest materials. They were damp with poor ventilation and light and often difficult to heat. Rents were high.

Most tenements had no toilets, water supply or sewers. Water was collected from a standpipe and toilet buckets were emptied into back yard dung heaps cesspits or open sewers.

Overcrowding was a problem. Over 30% of families had only one small room for everyone to eat, sleep and live in. Most families had between 5 and 12 people.

Rural cottages/black houses were built of rubble with turf or thatched roofs. They had no water supply or sanitation. The floor was usually bare earth. Animals often shared the same room as people.

In 1855 the Removal of Nuisances Act allowed councils to compulsory purchase slums. The 1875 Public Health Act meant many houses had water and sewers.

In 1918 a Royal Commission found that many of the worst slums had been demolished. 13% of the people still lived in one- roomed houses.

After the First World War the government promised to build many new houses (Homes for Heroes). In 1919 Addisons Housing Act was passed but the government ran out of money in 1921.

I924 - Wheatley Housing Act. This provided the first council houses with electricity, indoor toilets and gardens. There were not enough of these and rents were high.

1930 - Green woods Housing Act began large-scale slum clearance in cities. In rural areas improvements were slower to come, especially in remote areas.

By the 1930s there were still problems of slums and over-crowding, but most houses had water supplies, toilets, drains and electricity.

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE

UNIT 1B: CHANGING LIFE IN SCOTLAND AND BRITAIN: l830-1930s

HEALTH1B7

BACKGROUND

For most of the nineteenth century the death rate remained at a high level. This was due to the poor state of health of the population, particularly the working class who lived in the cities. Poor diet and bad working and living conditions were the main reasons for ill health. Even minor illnesses could kill people who were undernourished and weak from long hours of work.

Most people could not afford to visit a doctor if they were ill and in many cases this would have done them no good. Medical knowledge was very limited and doctors could offer very little in the way of treatment. After 1870 diet, living and working conditions slowly improved and doctors discovered the causes of many diseases. This led to people living longer lives.

Diseases: - Tuberculosis – dampness and pollution; Cholera - contaminated water

Typhus – poor hygiene fleas and lice; Typhoid - contaminated food or water.

Over-crowding and poor ventilation led to the spread of disease. In Glasgow families in one-roomed houses had a death rate of 32.7. Families in 4 room houses 11.2.

Water pumps in the streets were often contaminated by sewage seeping in. Studies at the time were able to trace a cholera outbreaks to the street pumps in the areas affected.

Sewage disposal was often a cesspit a dung heap or an open street sewer. There were no planning regulations and dangerous trades were often in the same buildings as houses.

Food was often adulterated. Most houses had no clean storage areas for food and files would swarm from the dung-heaps on to unprotected food.

Bad working conditions in factories and mines, where the air was filled with cotton fluff or coal dust led to diseases of the chest lungs and digestive system.

Before 1970 doctors did not understand the causes of disease. Joseph Lister discovered antiseptics in 1865. Pasteur and Koch discovered bacteria in the 1880s.

Public Health Act 1848 - This gave local authorities the power to set up Health Boards and appoint Medical Officers. It was not compulsory and had little effect.

Public Health Act 1875 - Councils had to set up Medical Boards with Medical Officers. They were also to pave and light streets, provide sewers and clean water supplies.

Health improved after 1870 due to better housing, clean water and sanitation, better diet, improved living standards and advances in medical knowledge.

STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION FILE