An Exploration of the Extent to Which Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors Influence Primary

C. L. Tupling – Paper presented at British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Manchester, 16-18 September 2004

An exploration of the extent to which socio-economic and cultural factors influence primary schools’ capacity to access and use ICT as part of the ‘ICT in Schools’ policy.

Claire Tupling

CIRA

University of Teesside

Middlesbrough

TeesValley

TS1 3BA

Please note this paper represents work in progress and should not be quoted without permission of the author.

Abstract

The UK ‘ICT in Schools’ policy aims to ensure that all schools have access to ICT resources and support and that they are able to utilise these in curriculum delivery. It is intended to remove “barriers to learning, ensuring access for all” (DFEE, ‘Connecting the Learning Society’ 1997) enabling all teachers and pupils access to information.

Whilst the DFES collects limited performance indicator data to monitor ICT in Schools, this paper presents more in-depth results from a survey of primary schools in the North of England. The survey gathered information from schools on their experiences of obtaining ICT infrastructure, support for integrating ICT into teaching and learning and their perceptions of the effectiveness of training. Schools provided information on the extent to which ICT was integrated into the curriculum in their school and their belief as to the effectiveness of ICT.

The paper proposes that differences exist both between schools and within schools in terms of socio-economic and cultural factors that may limit schools’ abilities to access ICT resources and apply technology in teaching and learning. This paper explores the evidence that these factors may significantly influence the effectiveness of ‘ICT in Schools’.

Introduction

ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in Schools is a UK Government education policy enabling educators and learners to make educational use of ICT. This paper seeks to explore factors that might effect schools capacities to access and use ICTs as part of these initiatives.

In this paper I will present analyses from a questionnaire survey of primary schools in the north of England regarding the implementation of the Government initiatives in their schools. Together with socio-economic information about the schools, analysis has explored differences between primary schools in their capacity to use and access ICT.

In this paper I will briefly outline the policies and describe the social and policy context. I will consider the methods of evaluating this policy currently used by the Government, arguing that further research is required to investigate the possible existence of socio-economic and cultural factors that might affect schools’ capacities to implement the initiatives. Having outlined the methodology of the study I will present findings from the survey and discuss the implications of these for the effectiveness of the initiatives. The paper will end with a discussion and consideration of how further research might add to the understanding of the factors that influence the success or otherwise of ‘ICT in Schools’.

ICT in Schools

The UK Government launched the National Grid for Learning (NGFL) in 1998. This initiative aimed to fulfil the Government’s pledge to connect every school to the “information superhighway” (DFEE, 1997: foreword).

Behind this pledge is the Government’s belief that, as part of the NGFL initiative the use of Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) in schools will, “remove barriers to learning, ensuring opportunities for access for all” (ibid: 3), will help raise educational achievement, particularly in literacy and numeracy, equip pupils with skills that are needed in the ‘knowledge economy’ and assist educational practitioners with their professional development. Other anticipated benefits relate to the NGFL are identified in Connecting the Learning Society, the Government’s consultation document, outlining their vision for the NGFL.

Research, in particular that commissioned by Tony Blair and conducted by Dennis Stevenson (later to become Lord Stevenson) was used as evidence for the need for an initiative such as the NGFL (Stevenson, 1997). It reported on the existing state of ICT in UK schools as well as the potential putting forward recommendations which were adopted in the NGFL initiative.

Funding was provided through the NGFL to enable schools to procure the Information and Communications Technologies that were needed to access the information superhighway, otherwise known as the Internet. Lottery money was allocated to training teachers in the use of ICT for effective teaching and learning through the New Opportunities Fund (NOF). Schools’ access to funding necessitated the formulation of an ICT development plan approved by the LEA.

A number of targets were set for the NGFL, most to be achieved by 2002. One of those targets aimed for all schools to be connected to the Internet by this date. In enabling pupils to access ICT, the initiative aimed at a target computer to pupil ratio of 1:11 in primary schools. The NOF ICT training scheme for teachers aimed to train existing teachers in the effective use of ICT by 2003.

While the NGFL programme ran until 2002, initiatives to further develop access and use of ICT in schools has continued under the ‘ICT in Schools’ initiative. Some NGFL targets have been altered, reflecting the ongoing development of ICT in schools, for example, the computer to pupil ratio is targeted to be computer for every eight children in primary school and, by 2006 the target is for all schools to be connected to the Internet via Broadband (DFES, 2003: 3).

Social and Policy Context of ‘ICT in Schools’

The UK Government acknowledges the existence of a “digital divide”, a term they use to describe how some without the capacity or the skills to access and use ICT will be disadvantaged in what the Government believes is an emerging ‘knowledge economy’. The ‘knowledge economy’, its existence and significance contested by sociological debate is, according to the Government’s belief, an economy where skills will need to be constantly updated and will focus on the use of ICTs. Having a population with the skills needed for this ‘knowledge economy will assist the UK in global competitiveness and help ensure a successful economy.

Following a report produced by the Social Exclusion Unit’s policy action team on ICTs, Closing the Digital Divide: information and communication technologies in deprived areas the UK Government launched a number of ICT initiatives designed to combat the digital divide while increasingly providing information and services via ICTs. Such initiatives include ‘E-government’ whereby the Government has set itself targets to make services accessible through ICTs. Democracy is also being targeted with ICTs pilots electronic voting haven taken place. In order to target the ‘digital divide’ a number of ‘UK Online centres’, offering public access to ICT and training in its use were established, targeted in the most deprived areas of the UK. The ICT in Schools initiatives are related to these initiatives.

Some have criticised the Government’s concept of the ‘digital divide’ on the grounds that it is too simplistic. Differential access to ICTs does not result in a dichotomous split between those who have access to ICT and those who do not. Evidence suggests that there are multiple divides where access and use of ICT is associated with several factors including socio-economics, educational attainment, age, ethnicity and geography (Selwyn, 2002; BECTA 2001). Having access to technology does not mean that people with access are equal as differences can exist in terms of the purpose for which ICT is used and the type of resources accessed through ICT.

Educational ICT policies while designed to combat a ‘digital divide’ may be shaped by the inequalities that are currently associated with differential access to and use of ICTs (Selwyn, 1999; Natriello, 2001).

Government evaluation of ICT in Schools

The Government is evaluating the impact of its ICT in Schools initiatives in a number of ways. Methods include the collection of statistics from schools and evidence obtained from school inspections and independent evaluations carried out by the Government’s educational technology agency, BECTA.

Prior to the launch of the NGFL statistics were obtained from a biennial UK education department survey on Information Technology in schools. In publishing its vision for the NGFL in Connecting the Learning Society the Government stated that “the collection of statistics by the UK Education Departments should be focussed on assessing progress towards achieving the new targets for ICT and the implementation of the Grid” (op cit : 25). Following this the Survey of Information and Communications Technology in Schools, has been conducted on an annual basis. Government has used results from this survey to claim the success of its NGFL initiative, as seen in the UK education department’s press releases; “Jacqui Smith hails boost in number of schools online” (DFES, Press Notice 1999/0390) and “Virtually all schools are now connected to the Internet” (DFES, Press Notice 2001/0334).

Criticism has been levelled at statistics produced by UK education departments, particularly those relating to Internet connectivity. A target was set for all schools to have an Internet connection by 2002 and the annual survey obtained data on this resulting in the figures used in the education departments’ press releases. Schools can be classified as being connected to the Internet if they have, for example one computer in the school office with a dial up connection. This information may be accurate, the school has an Internet connection and so the figures report this. However critics, such as George Cole, writing in TES Online argues such an Internet connection “is hardly going to make a great impact on the school’s use of ICT” (2000: 11). Others have said that statistics ought to report on the level of classroom connectivity (Jill Day, cited Cole: ibid) as is the case in the USA (United States Department of Education, 1996: 5).

Other information contained in the statistical bulletins, reporting on the annual survey is limited. Statistics reveal that, by 2003 there was an average of 7.9 pupils to each computer (DFEE, 2003: Key figures table). However, this statistic provides little information on whether there is any variance to this ratio and if such a variance exists whether there are any patterns to the distribution of computers in primary schools. Information provided in Survey of Information and Communications Technologies in Schools does not provide any information as to whether these initiatives are transcending inequalities between schools that may be acting as barriers to learning.

Other methods of evaluating the ICT in Schools initiatives, in addition to statistical sources are being used by the UK Government. Ofsted produce reports based on inspections of schools specifically for the purpose of investigating the use of ICT in schools. BECTA also contribute to the evaluation of the ICT in Schools initiatives through their Research and Evaluation Series. Reports in this series have provided information on the impact of ICT on attainment as well as specific aspects of the Government initiative, such as the Laptops for Teachers initiative.

These reports provide information in addition to statistics on access and use, their focus is on the impact of the use ICT on educational attainment and professional development, these being highlighted by the Government as desired benefactors of the use of ICT in Schools. From these evaluation sources there is little information on the differences that might exist between schools in their capacity to access and make use of ICT and what these differences are, if they exist. As the ICT in Schools initiatives are intended to “remove barriers to learning” it is necessary to know if barriers to the successful implementation of the policy exist and whether the ICT in schools initiatives are able to transcend these.

The Study

The survey discussed in this paper forms the first part of a research study investigating the implementation of ICT in schools at primary school level. The analysis presented here is being used to explore some of the findings in greater depth, and will use qualitative methods to research the experiences of educational practitioners.

I selected a sample of primary schools in three LEAs in the north of England with the aim of obtaining a school population with contrasting socio-economic and cultural characteristics. Information from the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD 2002) was used to provide socio-economic information on areas (wards) in which the schools are located. The Index of Multiple Deprivation is a set of data describing every ward, district and unitary authority in England. Wards are ranked from 1, the most deprived, to 8414, the least deprived while local authorities are ranked 1 to 354. The index measures deprivation in six domains; income, employment, education, health, housing, and geographic access to services. Indices for local authorities are based on the average of the figures for wards. Each of the six domains has its own set of data which, combined constitutes the IMD. I chose the IMD for this study because of its comprehensiveness and comparability, it applies to all wards in England and uses a range of socio-economic data. It is also relevant for current social policy initiatives. Neighbourhood Renewal funding is targeted, by Government at Local authorities who are ranked as being among the 10% of local authorities in England that are the most deprived, according to the IMD. This means that a significant proportion of their population live in the 10% of wards that are the most deprived. Information relating directly to the schools themselves, for example the number of pupils on the school roll and any religious affiliation were obtained from data that the LEA published on schools. Using the IMD, I created quartiles and a decile to categorise LEAs and schools according to their level of deprivation . Figure 1 illustrates how the LEAs selected contrast in their level of deprivation.

Briefly the three LEAs in the sample can be described as follows:

LEA 1 – Schools selected from this LEA are located in a district that ranked in the middle of the IMD, it consists of large urban centre surrounded by rural communities.

LEA 2 – As defined by the IMD this LEA is among the 10% of local authorities that are the most deprived in England, however there are schools located in relatively affluent wards. It is exclusively urban. Schools in this area which have a religious affiliation are likely to be Roman Catholic. In some wards there are high proportions of Black and Minority Ethnic populations. There are a number of primary schools in this LEA which have large numbers of pupils on roll, the largest school has approximately 570 pupils.

LEA 3 – Schools in this area are located in the least deprived districts in England, however there are pockets of relative deprivation. Schools are located in small market towns and villages. Schools with a religious affiliation in this area are mostly Church of England.

Taking all the schools in the sample the following chart shows the proportion of schools located in wards of each quartile and bottom decile of the IMD.

Questionnaires were sent to schools in the sample with a request that it be completed by the ICT co-ordinator, if the school had one. Issues covered in the survey included schools’ ICT development plans, funding for ICT, pupil access to ICT, the NOF ICT training programme, as well as the effectiveness and use of ICT. Slightly over 72% of schools responded to the survey and these schools were representative of the population from which they were drawn.

Survey Results

I will present and discuss the analysis of the survey results by theme. In the first section I will cover the resources available for the planning and co-ordination of ICT in schools. The next section covers an analysis of the methods schools use to procure ICT which leads to the following section dealing with pupil’s access to computers and the Internet within school. Inclusivity is identified in this paper as a theme of ICT in Schools and, though it spans the issues being analysed here I am devoting a section to inclusivity as a means of higlighting its significance to these initiatives. The final sections of the survey analysis are short sections covering staff development and the effectiveness of using ICT.

ICT planning and Development

Schools must produce an ICT Development plan and have this approved by their LEA. LEA approval of ICT Development Plans enables schools to access their share of the Standards Fund, with which they can purchase ICT , and their allocation of the NOF which enables teaching staff to receive ICT training. The ICT development plan is, claims BECTA “essential if the opportunities offered by ICT are to be realised” (BECTA, 2002:23). In Connecting Schools, Networking People BECTA has devoted a section advising schools on the role of the ICT development plan and what should be included in it. Plans are intended to demonstrate how ICT will be used in teaching and learning, how ICT resources and equipment will be updated, how pupils will be protected from “undesirable material” (BECTA, 1999:14 ), how ICT will be used in promoting inclusion both within the school and outside. BECTA recommend that senior staff members are involved in devising the plan but that it must be supported by all staff. In this survey respondents were asked whether their school had an ICT development plan and asked if a number of elements were included in it. Elements of plans relating to inclusion are discussed in the section on ICT and inclusivity, pupil Internet safety will be covered in this section.

An ICT co-ordinator is a member of the teaching staff who takes on the responsibility for overseeing the use and development of ICT in the school. Nearly all schools have an ICT co-ordinator, however over three-quarters of schools have no non-teaching time allocated for this role. This means that a teacher who is the ICT co-ordinator has no time when they are not required to teach in order to carry out ICT co-ordination duties. This was especially the case in schools with small pupil numbers. However there is no increase in time allocated in proportion to the number of pupils on the roll. For example, in those schools with pupil numbers of 200 or more, the amount of non-teaching time allocated to the ICT co-ordinator varied from 1/3 hour each week to half a day each week. In many schools the amount of non-teaching time allocated for this role was less structured, with respondents reporting half and whole days per year with one response of “as needed”.