Deliverable Factsheet
Date: 30 December 2009
Deliverable / D1.1A Database containing a Technical Overview of Pesticides and Their Contribution in the Agricultural Production ProcessWorking Package / WP1:Pesticide Productivity, Efficiency, and Shadow Pricing for Stochastic Agricultural Production Technologies
Partner responsible / IG Eleftherohorinos, AUTH
Other partners participating / UOC
Nature / P
Dissemination level / PU
Delivery date according to DoW / February 2009
Actual delivery date / February 2009
Finalization date / 30 December 2009
Relevant Task(s): / 1.1, 1.2
Brief description of the deliverable
A review on the results related with the yield losses due to pests and on the essential role of pesticide use in crop production is presented. The adverse effects of pesticide use on human health and environment are also reported along with the information concerned on criteria and environmental risk indicators needed for pesticide selection to maximize crop production and to minimize impacts on human health and environment. Finally, the food safety, food qualityand benefits in relation with the pesticide use as well as the necessity of their use for a viable future crop productionin Europe are discussed.
Followed methodology / framework applied
A synthetic report is provided on pesticide use in agriculture and their implementation in EU. Also, the role of pesticide use and its impact on agricultural process, operators, consumers and the environment is reported. Moreover, the possibilities of using alternatives to pesticides or plant protection products with lower risks to human health and the environment as well as the possible implementation and feasibility of such a system are discussed.
Target group(s)
WP1 group, which will provide an overall description of pesticides’ effects on the agricultural production process by assessing the existing theoretical and empirical literature.
WP2 group, which will investigate the effects of pesticides use on farmers’ health, as well as productivity differences among farmers.
Key findings / results
High crop yield losses are resulted from pests.
Pesticideshave been found to be very essential tools for viable crop production.
Pesticide use has been linked with adverse effects on human health and environment.
Criteria and environmental risk indicators should be used for pesticide selection to maximize crop production and minimize their impacts on human health and environment.
Safe and high quality food can be produced with the appropriate use of pesticides.
The non-approval of some key pesticides in Europe will have negative impacts on the viability of the future crop production.
Interactions with other WPs deliverables / joint outputs
WP no. / Relevant tasks / Partner(s) involved / Context of interaction
WP1 / 1.1, 1.2 / UOC, WU
WP2 / 2.1, 2.5, 2.6 / UOC, WU
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Project no. 212120
Project acronym: TEAMPEST
Project title:
Theoretical Developments and Empirical Measurement of the
External Costs of Pesticides
Collaborative Project
SEVENTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME
THEME 2
Food, Agriculture and Fisheries, and Biotechnology
Title of Deliverable:
D1.1 A Database containing a Technical Overview of Pesticides and Their Contribution in the Agricultural Production Process
Author: IG Eleftherohorinos
Due date of deliverable: February 2009
Actual submission date: February 2009
Start date of project: 1st May 2008 Duration: 36 months
Lead contractor for this deliverable: University of Crete
Version: Draft
Confidentiality status: PU
1
Extended Summary
The review is concerned with the evaluation of the results related with the yield loss due to pests (fungi, bacteria, viruses, animal pests and weeds) and the essential role of pesticides in crop production. The adverse effects of pesticide use on human health and environment are also reported along with the information concerned on criteria and environmental risk indicators needed for pesticide selection to maximize crop production and to minimize impacts on human health and environment. The food safety, food quality and benefits in relation with the pesticide use as well as the necessity of their use for a viable future crop production in Europe are discussed. The results indicated that the potential yield loss of wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, soybean, and cotton due to pests account worldwide for 51, 77, 68, 75, 61, and 83%, respectively. Pesticides were found to be widely used in crop production because they effectively manage to minimize infestations by pests and thus ensure greater supply and higher quality of agricultural commodities with lower input costs. However, although pesticides have been associated with significant positive effect on food production, their heavy and inappropriate use in some cases has been linked with considerable public concern for adverse effects on human health (worker exposure during pesticide application and consumer exposure to pesticide residues found in fresh fruit, vegetables and drinking water) and on the environment (water and air contamination, toxic effects on non-target organisms). Regarding food safety and quality in relation with the pesticide use, very few of the conventionally produced food samples were found to contain pesticide residues above the maximum residue limit (MRL), and these findings do not allow for conclusions related with potential risks for human health due to dietary exposure to pesticide residues. In addition, significant differences in terms of nutritional quality between conventional and organic foods were not found, and this suggests that there is no reason to support the selection of organically over conventionally produced foods to increase the intake of specific nutrients or nutritionally relevant substances. Moreover, grapes and apples were found to be the most pesticide-demanding crops in Europe compared with tomato, potato, maize and wheat. This was confirmed by the higher number of fungicides and insecticides registered for use in Greece and many other countries in EU [grapes (116) >apples (77) >tomato (74) >potato (68) >maize (23) >wheat (13)]. Within this context, the presented information on crop damage due to pests and on pesticide risks and benefits could be used to provide a solid methodological framework and empirical evaluation that will assist policy makers in identifying the true impact of pesticides on agricultural production and in achieving a sustainable use of pesticides. In addition, the considerable concerns related with the potential severity of the non-approved pesticide impacts on the future sustainability of crop production in Europe along with the use of some environmental risk indicators as tools for pesticide selection should also be taken into account to minimise the environmental and human adverse effects of pesticides and to ensure viable agriculture in Europe.
1
Page(s)Deliverable factsheet / 1
Deliverable cover page / 3
Extended Summary / 4
Table of contents / 6
Main body of the deliverable / 7
Introduction / 7
Pesticide effects on human health / 10
Pesticide effects on the environment / 15
Pesticides in EU and their impacts on crop production sustainability / 20
Most pesticide-demanding crops and related EU projects on pesticides / 23
Food quality and safety with respect to pesticide use / 26
The necessity of pesticides use in crop production / 30
Conclusions / 34
Policy recommendations and implementation / 35
Relevancy of deliverable with related WP and the others WPs / 36
Table of references / 37
Appendix / 44
Main body of the deliverable
Introduction
The selection of high-yielding and high-quality produce varieties coupled with the appropriate soil preparation, the right application of water (irrigation), and the rational management of the necessary nutrient inputs (fertilization) are major challenges to the agricultural production. However, the most important requisite for crop production is the protection of crops from pathogens (fungi, bacteria), viruses, and various animal pests (arthropods, nematodes, rodents, birds, slugs, snails) that inevitably attack crops and also from weeds that compete with crops for water, nutrients, and light (Oerke et al., 1994; Oerke and Dehne, 2004; Oerke, 2006). Infestations by potentially harmful organisms to crops have always been a major threat for the agricultural production worldwide. Crop yield losses due to pests can be substantial and in the case of serious product attacks the reduction in product quality can also occur (Hashemi et al., 2009). In particular, Oerke and Dehne (2004) reported that the potential yield losses (losses which occur without any cultural, physical, biological or chemical crop protection) of wheat, rice, maize, barley, potatoes, soybean, sugar beet, and cotton due to pathogens, viruses, various animal pests, and weeds were estimated worldwide to 15, 3, 18, and 32%, respectively, in 1996-1998. Among these eight crops the potential yield losses by pests worldwide varied from less than 48% (on barley) to more than 80% (on sugar beet and cotton). Recently published data by Oerke (2006) showed that the potential yield losses of wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, soybean, and cotton due to pathogens, viruses, various animal pests, and weeds were estimated worldwide to 13, 3, 19, and 34%, respectively, in 2001-2003, while the potential yield losses by pest infestations varied among the six crops from 51% (on wheat) to more than 80% (on cotton) (Table 1).
Table 1. Estimated potential and actual losses due to pests (pathogens, viruses, animal pests, weeds) in six major crops worldwide in 2001-2003 (Oerke, 2006).Potential loss (%) / Actual loss (%)
Crop / Pathogens / Viruses / Animal pests / Weeds / Total / Pathogens / Viruses / Animal pests / Weeds / Total
Wheat / 16 / 3 / 9 / 23 / 51 / 10 / 2 / 8 / 8 / 28
Rice / 14 / 2 / 24 / 37 / 77 / 11 / 2 / 15 / 10 / 38
Maize / 9 / 3 / 16 / 40 / 68 / 9 / 3 / 10 / 10 / 32
Potatoes / 21 / 9 / 15 / 30 / 75 / 15 / 7 / 11 / 8 / 41
Soybean / 11 / 2 / 11 / 37 / 61 / 9 / 1 / 9 / 9 / 28
Cotton / 9 / 1 / 37 / 36 / 83 / 7 / 1 / 12 / 9 / 29
The estimated yield losses for 40 crops grown in the USA without herbicides (for effective weed control) ranged from 5 to 67% (Gianessi and Reigner, 2006) and this was because the projected increase in hand weeding and soil cultivation (as common alternatives to herbicides) was not sufficient to prevent yield losses for these crops. Moreover, the estimated yield losses for fruit and vegetable crops grown in the USA without fungicides ranged from 50 to 95% (Gianessi and Reigner, 2005).
The most common methods used to keep crop plants healthy and productive are cultural, physical, biological, and chemical. Cultural and physical methods used for control of pathogens, viruses, animal pests, and weeds are crop and variety selection (crops or improved varieties with disease and pest resistance or with high competitive ability against weeds), crop rotation, cropping patterns, intercropping, planting time, crop husbandry and hygiene, fertilization, irrigation, tillage, mowing of weeds, hand weeding, cover crop management (mulches), soil solarization, burning (flaming), and flooding (normally for weeds) (Barberi, 2002; Eleftherohorinos, 2008). Biological control involves the use of any organism (e.g. natural predators, parasites, pathogens, viruses, and herbivores) or any management practice using an organism to reduce or eliminate potential detrimental effects of pests on crops. Finally, chemical control involves the use of organic or inorganic synthetic pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, acaricides, nematicides, and herbicides) that selectively kill pests and consequently keep the crop plants healthy and able to give high yields of the best possible quality produce.
The problem of weed control without herbicides has been cited numerous times as the biggest obstacle to crop production that organic crop growers encounter (Barberi, 2002; Earthbound Organic, 2006), and this is the major reason that organic crop hectarage in the USA totals 565,600 ha (0.5% of total US cropland) (Gianessi and Reigner, 2007). The latter is also confirmed by Walz (1999) who found that organic crop farmers from 30 research areas ranked weed control as the number one priority in three national surveys. Moreover, Gianessi and Reigner (2006) estimated that US crop production would decline by 135 billion kg of food and fibre or with a 20% loss in value of $16 billion, if herbicides were not used. They also estimated that growers spend $7 billion annually for herbicides and their application, whereas the total cost of increased labour for hand weeding and soil cultivation is estimated at $17 billion for an increase in production cost of $10 billion without herbicides. The need for fuel would be 1,280 million L greater since twice as many cultivation trips would be needed to replace herbicide sprays, and cultivators use four times more fuel per trip than herbicide sprayers. A minimum of 1.1 billion h of hand labour would be required at peak season for hand weeding, necessitating the employment of 7 million more agricultural workers. However, even with increased soil cultivation and extra hand weeding, crop yields would be 20% lower.
Pesticides are widely used in crop production because they help with consistency to minimize infestations by pests and thus ensure great supply and high quality of agricultural commodities with lower input costs (Matthews, 2006; Zimdahl, 2007; Cooper and Dobson, 2007). Data form theUSA indicate that herbicides are routinely used on more than 90% of the area grown with several crops (Gianessi and Reigner, 2007) and fungicides are used on 91 to almost 100% of the area grown with peaches, peanuts, cherries, celery, apples, potatoes, carrots, strawberries, and grapes (Gianessi and Reigner, 2005). Despite the variety of crop protection methods (cultural, physical, biological, and chemical) applied, the actual averaged yield losses by pest infestations worldwide in 2001-03 are estimated to 26-29% for soybean, wheat and cotton, and to 31, 37 and 40% for maize, rice and potatoes, respectively (Table 1) (Oerke, 2006). These findings suggest that the methods used to control pests should be applied more properly for maximum efficacy (Gianessi and Reigner, 2007). Regarding pesticides, they should be applied at the right place, right rate (according to pest density), right time (according to pest stage), in the right way (using the most appropriate sprayer equipment), and by taking into account all possible safety measures for the operator, the consumers, and the environment (Polidoro et al., 2008).
Pesticides are registered with the EU Commission (Directive 91/414) or US-EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) or with any other legislation which ensure that they can be used for their intended function without any undesirable effects on human health and the environment. The registration of a pesticide is a scientific, legal, and administrative process, where a wide variety of potential effects on human health and the environment associated with the use of a pesticide product is assessed, considering also the particular site or crop on which the product is going to be used, the amount, frequency, and timing of its use, and the recommended storage and disposal practices (Monaco et al., 2002; European Communities, 2004; US-EPA, 2009). Thus, results from tests that determine whether a pesticide has the potential to cause adverse effects on humans, wildlife, fish, or plants, including also endangered species and non-target organisms, or the potential to cause contamination of surface water and groundwater from leaching, runoff, and spray drift must be provided before registration. However, although pesticides are developed to work with reasonable certainty and minimal risk to human health and environment, the published results are not always in agreement with this issue. Therefore, discussions among scientists and the public focused on the real, predicted, and perceived risks that pesticides pose to human health (e.g. worker exposure during pesticide application and consumer exposure to pesticide residues found in fresh fruit, vegetables and drinking water) and the environment (e.g. water and air contamination, toxic effects on non-target organisms) are justified (Pimentel, 2005; Burger et al., 2008; Mariyono, 2008; Damalas, 2009).
The objective of this review was to summarize and evaluate the results related with crop yield losses due to pests and also to examine the role of pesticide use in crop production. In addition, results on the adverse effects of pesticide use on human health and the environment are presented along with the criteria and environmental risk indicators needed for pesticide selection to maximize crop production and minimize impacts on human health and the environment. Finally, food safety and food quality in relation with pesticide use as well as the possible negative impacts on the viability of the future crop production due to non-approval of some key pesticides in Europe are discussed.
Pesticide effects on human health
Human exposure to pesticides occurs in the case of agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, industrial workers, and exterminators of house pests (Atreya, 2008; Martínez-Valenzuela et al., 2009). The exposure of these workers increases in the case of not paying attention to the instructions on how to apply the pesticides and particularly when they ignore basic norms of hygiene regarding the use of personal protective equipment and the practice of washing hands after pesticide handling or before eating (Falck et al., 1999; Konradsen et al., 2003). In addition, the exposure of the general population to pesticides occurs through eating food and drinking water contaminated with pesticide residues.
The human (agricultural workers and general population) health risk assessment to pesticides is not an easy and particularly accurate process because of differences in the periods and levels of exposure, type of pesticides (regarding toxicity), mixtures or cocktails used in the field, and the geographic and meteorological characteristics of the agricultural areas where pesticides are applied (Bolognesi, 2003; Pastor et al., 2003). Such differences refer mainly to people who prepare the mixtures in the field, the pesticide operators and the population that lives near the sprayed places, storage rooms, greenhouses and open fields. Therefore, considering that human health risk is a function of pesticide toxicity and duration of exposure, a greater risk is expected from a moderate toxic pesticide to which a person is highly exposed compared with a highly toxic pesticide to which little exposure occurs. However, regarding the general population dietary exposure to pesticide residues found on food and drinking water, whether or not this exposure consists of a potential threat to human health is still the subject of great scientific controversy (Magkos et al., 2006).
Regardless of the difficulties assessing the human health risk, the authorisation for pesticide commercialisation in Europe currently requires data of potential negative effects of the active substances on human health. These data are not obtained from experiments (tests) using humans but from metabolism, acute toxicity, sub-chronic or sub-acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, teratogenicity, generation studies and irritancy experiments using rat as a model mammal and in some cases dogs or rabbits (Matthews, 2006). The respective pesticide potential toxicity tests required by EPA (2009) for human health risk assessments are 1) acute toxicity tests, short-term exposure to a single dose [a) oral, dermal, and inhalation exposure, b) eye irritation, c) skin irritation, d) skin sensitization, e) neurotoxicity], 2) sub-chronic toxicity tests, intermediate repeated exposure (oral, dermal, inhalation, nerve system damage) over a longer period of time (i.e., 30-90 days), 3) chronic toxicity tests, long-term repeated exposure lasting for most of the test animal's life span and intended to determine the effects of a pesticide after prolonged and repeated exposures (chronic non-cancer and cancer effects), 4) developmental and reproductive tests to identify effects in the fetus of an exposed pregnant female (birth defects) and how pesticide exposure affects the ability of a test animal to reproduce successfully, 5) mutagenicity tests to assess pesticide potential to affect cell genetic components, and 6) hormone disruption tests to measure effects for their potential to disrupt the endocrine system (consists of a set of glands and hormones they produce that help guide the development, growth, reproduction, and behavior of animals including humans).