DEBATE CLUB : TOPICS (IV Year - 2Nd Term)

DEBATE CLUB : TOPICS (IV year - 2nd term)

I HUMAN RIGHTS

Topic 1 / Human Rights: Imposition by Force?
Summary / Should force be used to protect human rights?
Context / The sight of people being deprived of parts of their lives that we take for granted is one of the most unsettling that can reach us. The cases that appear the most urgent are those that command the headlines — Saddam’s treatment of Kurds, Milosovic’s treatment of Kosovar Albanians — and they are the cases that command the most drastic action from the West. But less prominent infringements of human rights can be as serious: “prisoners of conscience” are held world-wide. Is there any moral difference between the urgent and the ongoing, and how should they be tackled? Intervention, whether by all-out military force, through peace-keeping forces, or by diplomatic means, can arguably curtail human rights abuses, but it does pose practical and moral problems. What country has the right to intervene? How can civilian casualties be curbed?
Topic 2 / China Human Rights Abuses, U.S. Trade Barriers
Summary / Should the United States use trade barriers to decrease human rights abuses in China?
Context / Since the end of the Cold War the trade versus human rights debate has been a major point of disagreement between American and China, and even between policymakers in the USA. Western politicians and NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International allege that China engages in a host of systemic human rights abuses, including suppression of religious freedom and free speech, censoring of the internet, the use of slave labor, the torture of prisoners, and the forced relocation of millions of people for public works projects. Policymakers in the USA are divided over whether the best approach to force China to improve this situation is through trade, and with it general exposure to the West and the international order, which it is argued will liberalize China and improve overall living conditions there. Alternatively, is it preferable to use the threat of sanctions and isolation to force China to improve in order to become a preferred trading partner? While some of this debate has become less heated since China’s membership in the World Trade Organization, it is still a matter of bilateral US-China relations.
Topic 3 / Legalise vs Ban
Summary / How far should the government interfere in people’s private lives? Should activities that many people think are wrong still be legal?
Context / Many policy debates come down to whether an activity should be legal, or whether the government should ban it. Usually the activity is one that someone might wish to do, but which society thinks is wrong.
Sometimes the activity in question is already illegal, and the debate is about whether it should now be banned. Examples of this include banning tobacco, pornography, alcohol, the smacking of children, abortion, gambling, the advertising of junk food and dangerous sports.
In other debates the activity is already against the law, and the arguments focus on whether it should be allowed, or legalised. Examples of this would include the use of drugs such as cannabis, cocaine and heroin, performance-boosting drugs in sport, assisted suicide and hunting.
Topic 4 / Internet, a force for Democracy?
Summary / Has the global spread of the internet aided democratisation, increased freedom and reduced human rights abuses, or is it at best ineffective and at worst a weapon in the hands of repressive governments?
Context / The internet itself is a neutral tool, but it is a tool which can be used to great effect by different groups in society. The debate on whether the internet contributes to democratisation was in part triggered by statistical research which shows a strong correlation between levels of internet penetration and degrees of democracy, which proponents have argued shows that the internet can contribute to democratization. Opponents claim this is just a result of the fact that the USA and Europe, already democratic regions, have over half of the internet users worldwide. A parallel debate also runs as to what type of democracy the internet does encourage. There is also controversy internally over the democratisation of content on the internet, with Wikipedia, often cited as evidence of the power of people on the web, sometimes suppressing changes to articles. The aim of each side in the debate must, therefore, be to prove the effects of the internet in the majority of cases, rather than arguing about a few ‘bunker’ states such as North Korea, which restrict freedoms across the board.
Topic 5 / Prisoners, right to vote
Summary / Should people serving prison sentences be permitted to vote in elections?
Context / Many countries restrict the right of those sentenced to imprisonment to vote in elections. For example, convicted prisoners are automatically banned from voting in Armenia, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Luxemburg, Romania, Russia and the United Kingdom. In Australia, prisoners are only entitled to vote if they are serving a sentence of less than three years. Only two US states (Maine and Vermont) permit prisoners to vote, although Utah and Massachusetts also did so until 1998 and 2000 respectively. In France and Germany, courts have the power to deprive people of voting rights as an additional punishment, but this is not automatic. Eighteen European states, including Spain, the Netherlands and the Republic of Ireland, place no formal prohibition on prisoners voting. In practice, however, it is often difficult for prisoners in some of these countries to vote: in the Republic of Ireland, prisoners have the right to be registered to vote in their home constituency, but have no right to either a postal vote or to be released to cast a vote at a ballot box.
Topic 6 / Smoking
Summary / Should there be further restrictions on the advertising, selling, and smoking of tobacco? Should it be banned? If yes, will it violate human rights?
Context / Key questions for this debate are: Is it the proper role of government to legislate to protect citizens from the harmful effects of their own lifestyle decisions? Does tobacco advertising increase tobacco consumption? Do health warnings, however much of the cigarette packet they cover, reduce consumption? What would be the effects of banning smoking in all public places, or even completely?
Topic 7 / Detention on the Ground of mental illness
Summary / Should the government have the power to detain people identified as having dangerous personality disorders?
Context / Britain’s Labour government has announced its intention to introduce a Mental Health Bill to replace the Mental Health Act 1983, which all acknowledge needs updating in the light of new psychiatric knowledge and human rights legislation. The draft Bill contains much which is uncontroversial, but there are a number of provisions which have led to serious and widespread opposition from mental health professionals and service users. The Bill is probably too wide-ranging for all of its contentious elements to be discussed in one debate. Perhaps the most controversial aspect of the Bill is the proposal to allow the authorities to detain indefinitely people with mental disorders who they consider a danger to the public. The Bill is opposed by the Mental Health Alliance, a coalition of more than 60 organisations including Mind, Maca, SANE, the Royal College of Psychiatrists, the Royal College of Nursing and the Law Society.
Topic 8 / Animal Rights
Summary / Do non-human animals have rights?
Context / The claim that animals have ‘rights’ was first put forward by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in the 1970s and has been the subject of heated and emotional debates ever since. There are many contexts in which the question of ‘animal rights’ comes up. Should we farm animals? If so by what techniques? Should we eat animals? Should we hunt and fish them? Is it morally acceptable to use animals as sources of entertainment in the context of zoos, circuses, horse racing etc.? Often the same organisations that campaign on environmental issues (e.g. Greenpeace) are also concerned for the welfare of animals: both sets of concerns derive from a commitment to the value of Nature and the Earth. The question of animal rights might well come up in a debate on biodiversity, and is one with so many political and social implications that it is also worth having in its own right. This debate is about the ethical principles at issue; the separate debates on biodiversity, vegetarianism, zoos, blood sports, and animal experimentation deal with more of the concrete details.
Topic 9 / Lowering the voting age
Summary / Should the age at which people gain the right to vote be lowered to 16?
Context / The right to vote is one of the most important human rights. It gives men and women the chance to have a say in the way they are governed. It allows them to get rid of bad governments and makes sure that any government listens to its people, for fear of being thrown out at the next election. It is one of the most important ways in which other rights (e.g. free speech, the right to a fair trial) are protected.
Not every country in the world is a democracy, with free elections giving citizens a fair political choice. But the right to vote is spreading and outright dictatorships are increasingly few on every continent. Yet what should that right to vote mean? A century or so ago almost no countries allowed women to vote, and it took decades of struggle for them to win political rights. Fifty years ago countries such as South Africa and many states in the USA limited the rights of black people to vote, but that too has changed for the better. Now every democracy accepts that all adult citizens should have the right to vote. But what does adult mean?

II ENVIRONMENT

Topic 1 / Dealing with climate change - regulations versus market methods
Summary / Do market approaches have greater potential to reduce carbon emission than regulatory approaches?
Context / This debate compares the two main ways that have been put forward for cutting carbon emissions. Regulations would involve bringing in new government rules which companies and families would have to follow. Regulations could require companies and families to save energy by putting in green technologies. The other proposal is to put a price on carbon, so that it becomes expensive to release it into the air. These approaches are called market mechanism. Pricing carbon would give people and companies a strong reason to find ways of reducing their carbon emissions.
Topic 2 / Global Warming: Is More Action Needed?
Summary / Although still a controversial subject, there is a growing consensus that global climate changes are being caused by environmental pollution, especially by greenhouse gases. Do we need to take more urgent action to halt this trend?
Context / Since the 1980s, there has been a growing body of evidence to suggest that industrialisation is having an effect on the climate of the planet. As concern has grown, a number of international bodies have been set up to research the issue, and more recently a series of treaties have been established to help curb the emission of so-called 'greenhouse gases'. The most important of these was the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (see below for a link to the full text of the agreement) as part of which the European Union, the USA and Japan agreed to reduce their carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The protocol has come under attack from both sides - many environmentalists feel that it does not really address the threat of global warming, while many in industry feel it is an unnecessary burden.Global warming is a particularly difficult issue as it demands a world-wide response. Many developing nations are understandably angered that a problem that seems to have been created by the rich, developed nations will have most impact on them. A global consensus remains far off.
Topic 3 / Environmentally Linked Aid
Summary / Should developed countries force developing countries to protect the environment by making it a condition of aid?
Context / Currently aid is given to developing countries via organs such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. This debate is about whether that aid should be conditional on the countries in question meeting certain environmental standards governing, for example, emissions of carbon dioxide and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Central to this debate are fundamental issues of principle and practice regarding the developing areas of the world; it is a debate that highlights the complex inter-relations of environment, politics, and economics. Should the priorities of developing nations be economic growth, prosperity, and a higher standard of living above all else? Or should they give priority to discovering environmentally-friendly, 'sustainable' ways of developing? What role should the economically and politically powerful nations of the developed world, and international institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF play in shaping the route that is taken?
Topic 4 / Greenhouse Gas: Trading of Quotas
Summary / Should countries be allowed to buy greenhouse gas quotas from other countries and so, in effect, pay for the right to pollute more? Or should polluters simply be heavily taxed if they exceed their own quotas?
Context / It is generally, although not universally, accepted that the planet is under severe threat from climate change. A number of methods have been proposed in order to reduce the emissions of so-called greenhouse gases, which lead to global warming. The European Union has always favoured a 'carbon tax' (a tax on heavy polluters) whereas the United States has supported Tradable Pollution Quotas (TPQs). Each country in the TPQ scheme is initially permitted to produce a certain maximum amount of each polluting gas. Consequently, countries which wish to exceed their quotas can buy the right to do so from other countries which have produced less than their quota of polluting gases. In 1997, at the Kyoto environmental summit, the European Union conceded and the subsequent Kyoto protocol laid the foundations for TPQs. Under this protocol developing countries are exempt from the emission standards and cannot take part directly in pollution trading. Furthermore, countries can also 'sink' carbon (e.g. by planting forests to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere) to offset some of their pollution against their quota. The definition for this debate is simply that the TPQ system, as agreed upon in Kyoto, will be an effective way of averting global warming. There are two distinct subsets of opposition arguments. The industrial lobby claims that TPQs go too far and that such stringent regulation is unnecessary. The environmentalists claim that TPQs are too lax.
Topic 5 / International taxation of Aviation
Summary / Should aviation fuel for domestic and international flights be taxed to combat climate change? Could such a tax be used to fund development aid? Are there viable alternatives?
Context / The debate over whether international aviation should somehow be taxed brings together two global problems. How to control emissions which lead to climate change, and how to find additional funding for development aid - for example to help meet the Millennium Development Goals. Aviation is now estimated to produce 3% of all global CO2 emissions, but this is rising fast with the increasing affordability of flights for hundreds of millions of people worldwide. It is estimated that air travel will produce 15% of all CO2 emissions by 2050. The problem is made worse by studies which suggest that aviation is much more damaging to the climate than its level of CO2 output would suggest - the other gases it emits are even more damaging and the fact that emissions occur at high altitudes probably increases their impact. At present aviation is largely exempt from fuel taxes, although a few countries (including America and Japan) levy a tax on fuel used only on domestic flights.
Topic 6 / Energy Crisis: Nuclear vs Renewable Sources
Summary / Is nuclear power the best way to meet the ever-increasing energy needs of the planet, or do alternative energy sources provide a viable alternative?
Context / In recent years this has been a hugely contentious debate. There is much public fear about nuclear energy, fuelled by accidents such as Chernobyl and Three Mile Island. It is, however, an issue which is becoming more important as we approach a time when fossil fuel resources may run out, making it necessary to find other power sources. An interesting recent development in Europe was the German government's announcement in June 2000 that they will be closing down their 19 nuclear power stations by 2020.
Topic 7 / Biodiversity and Endangered Species
Summary / Should we be trying to prevent species becoming extinct? If so, why?
Context / 'Biodiversity' means the variety of bacteria, plants, and animals that live on our planet. This includes the unique behavioural patterns and activities of each species. Biodiversity is an ecological concept discussed in many scientific circles. Many debates about biodiversity will ultimately boil down to how important this diversity is, either for its own sake, or for some specific human benefits. International agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aim to protect biodiversity.
Topic 8 / Genetically Modified Food
Summary / Are there environmental, moral, or health issues associated with genetically modified food? Should it be banned?
Context / For the last year genetically modified (GM) food has been in the news almost every day! It is an issue on which everyone has an opinion. This is a difficult debate because a basic grasp on the scientific issues is necessary to take the debate beyond the level of media headlines. There are an enormous number of changes that can be made to organisms with genetic modification. These range from the introduction of fish genes into plants to lead to better frost resistance to modifications leading to rice plants producing more vitamin A. In the past varieties of crops and their seeds have not been owned by anyone. There is an increasing trend for biotechnology companies to patent GM crop varieties and thus own the exclusive right to produce and sell their seeds. This means that farmers in developing (and developed) countries will become dependent on these multinational seed-producing firms who will be able to charge high prices for patented varieties.
Topic 9 / Human Cloning
Summary / Should human cloning be banned ? Should reproductive human cloning always be prohibited?
Context / The cloning of ‘Dolly’ the sheep in 1997 by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh generated a spontaneous worldwide reaction. The United States has imposed a moratorium on human cloning and a ban on federal funding of cloning research, that will be reviewed every five years. The British government claimed that existing legislation regulating embryo research banned human cloning, but a strict interpretation of the statute would suggest that cloning remains lawful in Britain. Germany, Switzerland and several American states have passed laws expressly forbidding human cloning, whereas Canada and Ireland have no relevant legislation at present. The opposition of international organisations towards human cloning seems clear. The European Parliament, the Council of Europe, UNESCO and the WHO have all passed resolutions asserting that human cloning is both morally and legally wrong. There is a clear distinction between ‘reproductive cloning’ and ‘therapeutic cloning’.
Topic 10 / Animal Experimentation
Summary / Is it morally acceptable to experiment on non-human animals to develop products and medicines that benefit human beings?
Context / For many centuries people have experimented on animals. There are two main reasons for doing this: first, to find out more about the animals themselves, and, secondly, to test substances and procedures to see if they are harmful (with a view to deciding whether or not they can be used on human beings). In the second category fall cosmetic products as well as medicines and surgical techniques. There is a growing consensus that it is not acceptable to test cosmetic products on animals. This debate is about whether we should experiment on animals for scientific and medical purposes. The debate about the pros and cons of animal experimentation (or 'vivisection') is one that elicits very strong emotions: animal rights activists have resorted to trespass, violence, death threats, and hunger strikes in their single-minded (and sometimes illegal) mission to end this practice.

III POPULATION ISSUES