Critical and Evaluative Reading

CRITICAL AND EVALUATIVE READING

WORKBOOK

By Ralph M. Sandoval

Phoenix College

Reading Department

INTRODUCTION

The information contained in the following pages is intended to help students break down material and better understand the intended meaning. There is certainly more that can be covered in a manual such as this, but the intent is to give the students something basic with which to work. This manual is not intended to use as a stand alone resource but rather an instrument to supplement the material of a particular discipline.

It may be used in the following manner:

1. In conjunction with a particular lesson.

2. Used together with study guides for particular chapters.

3. Used a a guideline for writing assignments

4. Used as a resource for ideas on critical reading.

STAGES OF CRITICAL READING

Comprehension/Interpretation/Judging

STAGE 1: READING FOR COMPREHENSION (LITERAL)

Comprehension is the skill of getting the direct, literal, or stated meaning of a word, idea, or sentence. This kind of reading requires little depth . It is the lowest rung in the meaning-getting ladder. We could call this stage, “reading the lines”.

END PRODUCT: Derive the MEANING OF THE AUTHOR’S MESSAGE from words, sentences, paragraphs, chapters and/or larger units.

STAGE 2: INTERPRETING THE TEXT

The interpretation stage probes deeper than the comprehension (literal) stage. It calls for the analysis of the text on the part of the reader, making meaning dependent on prior knowledge. Thus, it is concerned with supplying meanings not directly stated in the text or “reading between the lines”.

In addition we must be aware of that the Five Major Perspectives to interpret text are

1. The Social Perspective

2. The Emotional Perspective

3. The Rhetorical Perspective

4. The Logical Perspective

5. The Ethical Perspective

END PRODUCT: Interpret the author’s thoughts, make inferences from those thoughts, and predict outcomes from the implications found in the print by analyzing according to the five perspectives.

STAGE 3: JUDGING OR EVALUATING THE TEXT

The judging/evaluating stage includes the reading for comprehension and interpretation stages, but it also goes further than either of these in that the reader evaluates, passes personal judgment on the quality, the value, the accuracy, and the truthfulness of what is read. These skills should not be included under interpretation stage. This stage could be called “reading beyond the lines”.

END PRODUCT: Make critical judgments of the feasibility of what the author states and implies; evaluate the message instead of merely accepting it; draw conclusions, form generalizations; and apply the ideas gained from the interpretation to other

Comprehension/Interpretation/Judging

STAGE 1: READING FOR COMPREHENSION (LITERAL)

LITERAL MAIN IDEAS IN TEXT: QUESTIONING STRATEGY

1) TO FIND THE TOPIC ASK: WHAT IS THE PARAGRAPH/SELECTION ABOUT?

2) TO FIND THE MAIN IDEAASK: WHAT DOES THE AUTHOR WANT ME TO

KNOW AND REMEMBER ABOUT THE TOPIC?

HINT: Always question before, during and after you read.

The main idea is usually found in a sentence called the Topic Sentence. This Topic

Sentence is found mostly at the beginning of a paragraph or selection and is a general

statement without specific details.

The topic sentence may also be stated at the end of a paragraph or selection.

Also, it may be stated in the middle of a paragraph or selection.

or the author may state it in the beginning and again at the end of paragraph or selection. This is called restatement.

P.U.R.R.

A FOUR STEP PROCESS FOR READING AND STUDYING TEXT

1. P - Preview

2. U - Read for Understanding

3. R - Read to Remember

4. R - Review

1. PREVIEW: (a) the title

(b) the first paragraph (or introduction)

(d) the conclusion

(e) any questions at the beginning or end of the chapter

(f) view all graphics (pictures, charts, illustrations, etc.)

2. READ FOR

UNDERSTANDING: (a) turn subheadings into questions

(b) read to answer those questions

next to information that seems important

3. READ TO

REMEMBER: Initial understanding of what you just read is no guarantee that

you will remember the material later. The Read to Remember

step requires a physical interaction with the material evidenced

by:

(a) highlighting (See Highlighting handout in this packet)

(b) making vocabulary cards

(d) creating maps, outlines and/or charts from the text

(See Mapping handout this packet)

4. REVIEW: Working alone or with your classmates review the material.

The process of recitation, or review, is an essential step in retaining

the information you have read. After your preview, initial reading

and then interaction with the material, the process of review helps the

transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory. Alone

or with others, reviewing notes, maps, outlines, vocabulary cards, etc.,

all greatly reinforce your ability to recall information.

HIGHLIGHTING

Effective textbook highlighting does not require a great deal of effort if done properly. Almost all college textbooks utilize an organizational system of presenting broad topics, sub-topics, and specific details in a hierarchical order. These should be used as your main guides when highlighting.

STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE HIGHLIGHTING

The purpose of effective highlighting is to reduce the amount of material to a usable level for later study. The following steps demonstrate a system of effective highlighting:

STEP 1: Read the ENTIRE selection first.

The primary rule in highlighting is to read the entire assigned selection first. Do not

attempt to read and highlight simultaneously. Confusion and far too much highlighting will result. Some students will attempt a half-way approach of reading a paragraph at a time and them highlighting. This approach also will result in too much highlighting.

While reading the selection, you should:

(a) place PENCIL marks in the margin beside the material you determine to be

relevant and important.

(b) develop a general understanding of the material in the selection and how

the topics and sub-topics relate to each other.

This step coincides with the “Read to Understand” step in the PURR system.

STEP 2: Highlight

Now you are ready to return to the beginning of the selection and proceed with

highlighting. Your reading will move more quickly this time because you have

already identified the relevant points by your margin marks and because you now

have a general understanding of how they relate to each other.

(a) Use the author’s heading(s) as broad categories to guide your highlighting.

(b) Highlight ONLY relevant words and/or phrases. Avoid the temptation to

go “Highlighter Happy”.

and later remembering the material.

This step coincides with the “Read to Remember” step in the PURR System.

MAPPING INTRODUCTION

Reading material, especially textbooks that contain new terminology and concepts, often can be better understood and remembered if you can visualize the relationships among the pieces of information presented in the material. These graphic representations are called maps. Maps visually show how ideas and terms are related, which aid in comprehension and retention of material. Mapping should both improve comprehension and aid memory and retrieval of different types of information.

STEPS TO CREATING A MAP

A map is somewhat similar to an outline in that information is arranged in a hierarchical order according to the importance or relationship of the pieces of information. However, in a map, words are kept to a minimum and are visually arranged on one page to help show how terms and ideas are related to each other. The end result usually is a more concise, one-page visual depiction of the relevant information from the text selection.

In order to effectively map a selection from a textbook, use the following steps:

STEP 1: Utilize the first two steps of the PURR Reading and Student System, Preview and Read for Understanding, with the assigned textbook material. (See the handout entitled P.U.R.R.)

STEP 2: Highlight the relevant information, using the handout on Highlighting as a guide.

STEP 3: Choosing a particular section, chapter, or selection from the text, determine the topic to be mapped. On a piece of paper, draw a box around the topic. Write the main idea below the topic and draw a box around it. Draw a line to link the main idea to the topic.

STEP 4: Next you must find all of the information that supports the main idea of the material that you are mapping. This information is referred to as the subtopics. These subtopics should be concisely listed under (or even around) the main idea. The relationship between the subtopics and main idea must be clearly indicated, usually by lines linking them together. Any further supporting details that relate to the subtopics should be linked by lines to the subtopics. (See Figure 1 for the basic structure of a map.)

Figure 1. The Basic Structure of a Map

TOPIC

Main Idea

Subtopic Subtopic Subtopic

Supporting Supporting Supporting

Details Details Details

HELPFUL HINTS IN CONSTRUCTING A MAP:

1) The chapter titles or subtitles can often be used as corresponding topics,

main ideas or even subtopics on a map.

2) Draw a circle around each subtopic and then connect them to the main idea.

Whether you choose to use boxes or circles, it is important to be consistent with

your choices to distinguish topics, main ideas and subtopics from each other.

3) Aside from the use of boxes and circles, color can be a very valuable asset to a

map. Color can be used to help distinguish a map’s hierarchy - a topic from the

main ideas, the main ideas from the subtopics, and the subtopics from the

supporting details.

4) You should try not to exceed 7 subtopics in your map because it will make the

map too hard to read and too cluttered.

5) In the construction of a map, you may choose to place your topic near the top

of a piece of paper, or in the center, or at the bottom! Remember a map is a

personal visualization of the selected material as YOU see it. Each person’s

map, while containing similar content, may look different.

You now have a graphic summary of your reading. Your map can be used as a study

guide or as notes for easy review to check your understanding of the material. (See

figure 2 for an actual Mapping example.)

MAPPING EXAMPLE

Irrational Behavior

Through the past centuries, there have been many different attempts to explain irrational behavior. In ancient times, irrational behavior was considered the result of demons and evil spirits taking possession of a person. Later, the Greeks looked upon irrational behavior as a physical problem-caused by an imbalance of body fluids called “humors”- or by displacement of an organ. In the highly superstitious Middle Ages, the theory of possession by demons was revived. It reached a high point again in the witch-hunts of eighteen-century Europe and America. Only in the last one hundred years did true medical explanations gain wide acceptance and were categories of illness changed.

Irrational Behavior

Through the past centuries, there have been many

different attempts to explain irrational behavior.

ancient times Greeks Middle Ages last one hundred

years

LANGUAGE AND ITS POWER:

As Critical readers/thinkers, we must understand that language can be used or misused to give it power, the power that authors need to lead us in any direction that they wish – negative or positive, weak or strong, good or bad. As citizens and consumers, we are influenced by words and their denotative and connotative meanings.

First, we must look at denotation and connotation. Denotation is the is the specific object or act that a word points to – in other words the dictionary meaning of a word. However, our daily language consists of connotations or all of the positive, negative, and neutral images that we associate with words.

We must also look at such language tricks as:

· Vagueness – unclear meaning of a word

· Ambiguity – when a word has more than one meaning

· Doublespeak – using language and words to pretend to tell the truth

· Weasel words – using a word to evade making a forthright statement

· Spin – the use of words to make a behavior seem positive or minimize a negative reaction

· Reification – a word takes on more power than it really has

· Jargon – use of technical language

· Gobbledygook – use of vague or inflated language to confuse or overwhelm

· Euphemism – describing an event person or object by using more acceptable language

· Romancing the product – associating a product with something bigger, better or more interesting

As critical thinkers and critical readers, we must understand the power of words used to clarify or obscure particular issues. We must understand that language has a persuasive impact on us because of the images that we associate with words and phrases. This impact comes through the use of connotation. Always remember that the meaning of words is in us, the people.

Comprehension/Interpretation/Judging

2nd STAGE OF CRITICAL READING

INTERPRETING THE TEXT STAGE

The interpretation stage probes for greater depth than the comprehension (literal) stage. It calls for the analysis of the text on the part of the reader, making it dependent on prior knowledge. Thus, it is concerned with supplying meanings not directly stated in the text or “reading between the lines”.

In addition we must be aware of the Five Major Perspectives (John Peters, 1991) to interpret text. They are:

1. The Social Perspective

2. The Emotional Perspective

3. The Rhetorical Perspective

4. The Logical Perspective

5. The Ethical Perspective

END PRODUCT: Interpret the author’s thoughts, make inferences from those thoughts, and predict outcomes from the implications found in the print by analyzing according to the five perspectives.

A text of any kind can be interpreted using the five perspective mentioned above. These perspectives can apply across the disciplines, that is, they can apply to any subject. They form the basis of critical discussion and can be applied to even the more advanced texts depending on the situation at hand.