Sixth Framework Programme
Project contract no. 502527
ESPREME
Estimation of willingness-to-pay to reduce risks of exposure to heavy metals and cost-benefit analysis for reducing heavy metals occurrence in Europe
Specific Targeted Research Project
Research priority 1.6. Assessment of environmental technologies for support of policy decisions, in particular concerning effective but low-cost technologies in the context of fulfilling environmental legislation
Workpackage 02 – D01b
Source-sector analysis and evaluation report
Due date of delivery after extension: Month 9
Actual submission date: Month 15 (final version)
Start date of project: 1st of January 2004 Duration: 36 months
(extended to March 2007)
Lead authors for this deliverable: Jozef Pacyna, NILU Polska
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Programme (2002-2006)Dissemination Level
PU / Public / x
PP / Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)
RE / Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services)
CO / Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)
1
ESPREMEDeliverable D01b
Table of Contents
1.Objective of the D 01b
2.Source – sector analysis for Hg
2.1.Emission data collection
2.2.Selection of emission data
2.3.Source – sector analysis
2.4.Historical trends of emissions in Europe
2.5.Chemical forms of Hg emissions
2.6.Emission scenarios for the year 2010
3.Source – sector analysis for As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb
3.1.Emission data collection
3.2.Source – sector analysis
3.3.Historical trends of emissions
3.4.Emissions in the scenario year 2010
3.5.Road transport emissions in the scenario year 2010
4.Final remarks
List of Tables
Table 1:Contribution of emissions from various source categories to the total Hg emissions, gaseous elemental Hg, gaseous bivalent Hg and particulate Hg in Europe in 2000 (in tonnes)
Table 2:Emissions of As, Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb in Europe in the year 2000
List of Figures
Figure 2.1Historical trends of Hg emissions in Europe (tons/ year)
Figure 2.2Emission profiles for different chemical forms of Hg and various source categories
Figure 2.3Hg emission scenarios for the year 2010
Figure 3.1Historical changes of European emissions of As, Cd, Pb since 1955
Figure 3.2The 2010 emission scenarios for As, Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb in Europe
Figure 3.3Road transport emissions (BAU + Climate 2010) compared to other sectors for As, Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb in Europe
Project: ESPREME
1.Objective of the D 01b
The main objective of the Deliverable D 01b was to identify main sources of studied heavy metals and to analyze the contribution of emissions from these sources to the total emissions of these metals in Europe. The purpose of this analysis was to provide with the information needed for the assessment of:
-the potential for heavy metal emission reductions in Europe (discussed within the WP 03 of ESPREME), and
-emission scenarios for the target year 2010 (Deliverable D 01d).
The basis of the information needed for the source – sector analysis are the emission estimates for As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, and Pb prepared within the ESPREME projects and presented in the database available on the ESPREME website (the Deliverable D 01a).
Mercury has been treated somewhat separately in the analysis presented in this Deliverable for the following reasons:
-Hg is emitted mainly in the gas form, while the other studied heavy metals are emitted mostly on particles. This difference is a crucial factor when presenting various options for emission abatement, including the cost of this abatement, and
-sources and emissions of Hg were studied extensively in other EU projects including MAMCS (ENV4-CT97-0593 MERCYMS (EVK3-CT2002-00070 MOE ( and EMECAP (QLK4-2000-00489 ). The ESPREME project has benefited from these projects, also from discussion on source sector analysis.
2.Source – sector analysis for Hg
2.1.Emission data collection
A number of projects have been carried out within the 4th, 5th, and 6th EU FP with main goal to improve our knowledge on sources, fluxes, behavior and impacts of mercury in the European environment. The policy goal of these projects was to provide further justification for existing agreements and regulations on reduction of emissions and inputs of this element to air, water, and land and to present solid scientific evidence for new agreements. These existing agreements include primarily the protocol on heavy metal emission reductions within the UN ECE LRTAP Convention ( and the OSPAR ( and HELCOM ( conventions on the reduction of Hg inputs to the North Sea/North-east Atlantic and the Baltic Sea, respectively. The new regulations include the European mercury Strategy.
There is a collection of information on emissions of Hg in various European countries, carried out within the above mentioned agreements. These emissions are estimated by national emission experts and reported to the UN ECE LRTAP, HELCOM, and OSPAR conventions. However, the reported data are often incomplete and inaccurate. Therefore, the EU projects, such as MAMCS and MERCYMS have contributed to better knowledge of these emissions through independent emission inventories for Hg released not only from anthropogenic but also natural sources in Europe. The official emissions contain a number of other gaps, such as a lack of information on emissions of various chemical forms of Hg from different sources, and the height of these emissions to the atmosphere. Another drawback of the official emission inventories is the fact that they do not contain information on discharges of Hg to the aquatic and terrestrial environment. The MAMCS and MERCYMS projects have aimed at closing these gaps and preparation of input parameters for modeling the transport of Hg within air masses and water currents. Some economic sectors were given a special attention in the EU projects. The EMECAP project has focused on the assessment of current and future impacts of Hg emissions from chlor-alkali plants in Europe. These impacts are being studied on a local scale around the selected plants and on regional (European) scale taking into account all chlor-alkali plants in Europe that use the mercury technology.
The MOE project has provided the current agreements on the Hg emission reductions with the information on emission amounts and chemical speciation on the basis of measurements performed in selected point sources of Hg emissions, including power plants and waste incinerators. This was the first approach in Europe to verify the emission estimates by emission measurements. As a results of the MAMCS, MOE, and MERCYMS projects, a large database was obtained, containing the information on emission factors of Hg for various source categories, both anthropogenic and natural, emission amounts for these categories with regard to the air and water emissions, chemical profiles of Hg within these categories, selected information on emission source, particularly the height of the source. The spatial distribution of these emissions was also prepared in a form of emission maps. This information, prepared for Europe has contributed to the global emission estimates and emission mapping for mercury.
2.2.Selection of emission data
Two approaches were used for calculation of the European anthropogenic emissions of mercury in the reference year 2000:
-collection of emission data from countries where such data were estimated by national emission experts, and
-estimates of emissions on the basis of emission factors and statistical data on the production of industrial goods and/or the consumption of raw materials. These estimates were carried out for the countries where national estimates were not available.
National estimates of anthropogenic emissions of mercury were provided by national experts from 29 countries in Europe. The reporting of these data has been done within the above mentioned international conventions and programs, mostly within the UN ECE LRTAP. Emission experts in other countries might have also estimated their national emissions of mercury but these data were not available to ESPREME
The emission data received from national authorities have then been checked by ESPREME emission experts for completeness and comparability. The completeness of data regarded mainly the inclusion of all major source categories which may emit mercury to the atmosphere. No major omissions have been detected in the reported data. All major source categories in all countries reporting the emission data were included in this reporting.
It is very difficult to verify the data obtained from national authorities in various countries. The following approach has been undertaken. Information on emissions of mercury from various sources was brought together with statistics on the production of industrial goods and/ or the consumption of raw materials, and these two sets of data were used to calculate emission factors. Emission factors calculated in such way were then compared with emission factors reported in the Joint EMEP/ CORINAIR Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook
( ) (UN ECE, 2000). In a majority of the cases, emission factors estimated on the basis of national emission data reported to the project were within the range of emission factors proposed in the Guidebook.
Emission estimates have been performed within ESPREME for the countries where national emission data were not available. These estimates were performed using the information on:
- Statistical information on the consumption of raw materials and the production of industrial goods in 200, using the following references for:
- energy production: UN Statistical Yearbook,
- non-ferrous metal production: the World Bureau of Metal Statistics and Industrial Commodity Statistics Yearbook,
- iron and steel production and cement production: UN Statistical Yearbook, and
- waste disposal: UN Environment Programme, Environmental Data Report, and the OECD Environmental Data Compendium, and
- Emission factors of Hg, estimated by the authors of this Deliverable for the UN ECE Task Force on Emission Inventories in the period from 1997 through 1999 and presented in the Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook (UN ECE, 2000).
Emission factors were multiplied by statistical data in order to obtain emission data.
2.3.Source – sector analysis
There are four major groups of parameters affecting emission of mercury to the atmosphere:
- contamination of raw materials by mercury,
- physico-chemical properties of mercury affecting its behavior during the industrial processes,
- the technology of industrial processes, and
- the type and efficiency of control equipment.
Detailed description of the impact of these parameters on the quantity of emission is presented in other works of the authors of this Deliverable (e.g. Pacyna and Pacyna, 2002, Pacyna et al., 2003). One conclusion that is obvious from the analysis of various parameters affecting the Hg emission amount is that processing of mineral resources at high temperatures, such as combustion of fossil fuels, roasting and smelting of ores, kilns operations in cement industry, as well as incineration of wastes result in the release of the largest amounts of Hg to the environment, particularly to the atmosphere.
Mercury emissions for the year 2000 were estimated for the following source categories in individual European countries:
- combustion of coal in utility, industrial, commercial, and residential boilers,
- oil product combustion in utility, industrial, commercial, and residential boilers,
- cement production in wet and dry rotary kilns,
- primary and secondary lead production,
- primary and secondary zinc production,
- pig iron and steel production,
- caustic soda production,
- waste disposal, and
- other sources.
The category defined as “other sources” provides estimates of emissions in connection with various uses of mercury. Major uses of mercury include: 1) chlor-alkali production using the mercury cell process, 2) primary battery production, 3) production of measuring and control instruments, and 4) production of electrical lighting, wiring devices, and electrical switches. Chlor-alkali production is regarded in this emission survey as a separate source.
The European emissions from anthropogenic sources in the year 2000 are presented on the ESPREME website. Combustion of coal in power plants and residential heat furnaces generates about half of the European emissions being 239 tonnes. The coal combustion is followed by the production of caustic soda with the use of the Hg cell process (17 %). Major points of mercury emission generation in the mercury cell process include: by-product hydrogen stream, end box ventilation air, and cell room ventilation air. This technology is now being changed to other caustic soda production technologies and further reduction of Hg emissions is expected in this connection. The third category on the list of the largest Hg emitters in Europe is cement production (about 13 %).
Coal combustion in electric and co-generation power plants alone contributes more than 26 % to the total Hg emissions in Europe, while combustion of coal in small residential units used for heat production adds another 20 %. Combustion of oil in various combustion units contributes only less than 1 % to the total Hg emission in Europe.
Incineration of wastes is regarded as important source of Hg to the atmosphere. However, very incomplete information on these emissions is available in the European countries. On the other hand, it is rather impossible to use emissions factors, developed in one country to estimate emissions in the other country due to large differences in chemical composition of wastes in the European countries, particularly between western and eastern European countries. Therefore, the emission inventory prepared within ESPREME contains only the information for countries that provided emission data for waste incineration. In this way, the Hg emissions from waste incineration in Europe are underestimated in the ESPREME emission inventory.
The largest emissions were estimated for Russia (the European part of the country), contributing with about 27 % to the European emissions, followed by Poland, Germany, Spain, Ukraine, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. Most of these countries use coal as a major source of energy in order to meet the electricity and heat demands. In general, countries in the Central and Eastern Europe generated the main part of the European emissions in 2000. Spatial distribution of the European emissions in a form of emission maps is a subject of Deliverable D 01c.
The analysis of 2000 emission estimates has concluded that the main focus in developing the future scenarios of Hg emissions in Europe (Deliverable D 01d) should be on emission scenarios for coal combustion, chlor-alkali plants, and cement production. The Hg emissions from these categories in the year 2000 has contributed more than 76 % to the total anthropogenic emissions in Europe.
2.4.Historical trends of emissions in Europe
Another important information for the development of the 2010 emission scenarios is on the historical development of emissions in Europe. This information is available due to the earlier studies of the authors of this Deliverable. Data in Fig. 1 indicate steady decrease of Hg emissions in Europe during the last 2 decades. A closer look at emission reductions in Europe from 1980 to 2000 reveals that the biggest relative reduction in emissions (78.5%) has come from industrial processes – see Fig. 2.1(Pacyna, 2003). Emissions resulting from combustion of fuels also fell significantly – by 67% from 1980 to 2000 – but remained the largest source by far in the year 2000.
Major decline of Hg emissions in Europe occurred at the end of the 1980’s and the beginning of the 1990’s. This decrease was caused mainly by 1) the implementation of the FGD equipment in large power plants and the other emission controls in other industrial sectors, particularly in Western Europe, and 2) decline of economy in Eastern and Central Europe due to the switch in economies in these countries from centrally planned to market oriented.
Figure 2.1Historical trends of Hg emissions in Europe (tons/ year)
2.5.Chemical forms of Hg emissions
Accurate information on emissions of various chemical forms of Hg is needed by the modelers simulating long-range transport and atmospheric deposition of the element to the marine and terrestrial surfaces. Studies carried out at the end of the 1980's on the chemical speciation of Hg emissions have continued within the EU projects, including the MAMCS and MOE projects. Emission profiles of Hg for major anthropogenic source categories in Europe in 1995 have been elaborated and are presented in Fig. 2.2. These profiles were used to estimate emissions of various Hg species to the atmosphere in 2000. The results of these estimates are presented in the ESPREME website.
Figure 2.2Emission profiles for different chemical forms of Hg and various source categories
The major chemical form of mercury emitted from the anthropogenic sources in Europe to the atmosphere is gaseous elemental mercury, contributing with about 146 tonnes in 2000 (about 61 %). Gaseous bivalent mercury contributed about 76 tonnes (about 32 % of the total), and the emissions of Hg on particles were about 17 tonnes (7 % of the total). Gaseous elemental mercury contributes the most to the total emissions of Hg from all source categories, except for waste disposal. In the latter case, contribution of gaseous bivalent mercury is the highest. It is probably due to the high content of chlorine in wastes resulting in the formation of chlorides of mercury.
Contributions of emissions from various source categories to the total, gaseous elemental mercury, gaseous bivalent mercury, and emissions on particles are presented in Table 1. Combustion emissions contributed the most to the emissions of various Hg species. However, while this contribution was about 39 % in the case of gaseous elemental mercury, it is between 61 and 66 % in the case of the two remaining species.
2.6.Emission scenarios for the year 2010
Future scenarios of mercury emissions started to be developed only very recently. The first major attempt has been made in Europe within the EU MERCYMS project. Three major scenario groups have been defined to analyze the future emissions of Hg in Europe and in the Mediterranean region with the target years 2010 and 2020. Business As Usual (BAU) scenario assumes economic progress at a rate dependent on the future development of industrial technologies and emission control technologies without pressure of new environmental law during the period of projections. Policy Target (POT) scenario assumes that all currently agreed international conventions and European Union directives concerning the reduction of mercury emissions to the air and water will be fully implemented at the time of the target year. Deep Green (DEG) scenario assumes implementation of all solutions/ measures leading to a maximum degree of reduction of mercury emissions and its loads discharged to the total environment. The emission scenarios were developed for the three major anthropogenic categories: combustion of fuels, production of cement and production of chlor-alkali.