Cognition and Technology: Scaffolding Early Literacy Through ICT

Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Lisbon, 11-14 September 2002

Dr Tim Waller

University College Northampton

Northampton NN2 7AL

UK

Tel: + 44 (0) 1604 735500

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Abstract

The aim of this paper is to begin to describe and evaluate the characteristics of successful interaction between children and teachers, when using ICT for literacy. The paper will draw from insights offered by recent European and international research from the sociocultural perspective in order to carry out a detailed examination of the 'scaffolding' process and its role in supporting teaching and learning with ICT.

The paper also discusses a research project, carried out in primary and nursery school classes, in the UK, with children aged between 3 and 8 years, over a period of two years. The research was designed to explore how children use computers to read and write in the classroom and to investigate the teachers' style of interaction when supporting children's literacy with ICT. A range of methods, including video recordings, observations, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used to gather and evaluate data from children and teachers.

Data from the project, in particular video material, will be reviewed and a conceptual position advanced in the light of the results of the study. The paper will conclude with a discussion of possible ways forward for research in the field of early literacy and ICT.

Introduction

The purpose of the paper is to examine the role of the teacher in supporting young children's literacy learning with information and communication technology (ICT). The paper begins with a brief identification of consistent themes emerging from recent research concerning ICT and pedagogy (Collis et al., 1996; Littleton and Light, 1999; Moseley and Higgins et al., 1999; Somekh and Davis, 1997; University of Warwick, 2000, etc), ICT and literacy (Barker et al., 2000; Leu, 2000; Labbo et al., 2000;Reinking et al., 2000) and ICT and young children (Baker, 2000; Casey, 1997; Luke, 1997; Roskos and Hanbali, 2000; Rivalland, 2000).

A wider view of the social context of literacy and ICT is then expounded to consider how teachers 'scaffold' children's learning at, with, around and through the computer. This analysis draws upon recent work in the field of cognitive psychology pertaining to the situated and distributed nature of children's learning (see, Crook, 1994; Littleton and Light, 1999; Scardamalia et al., 1994; Wegerif and Scrimshaw, 1997). The sociocultural approach taken in the paperemphasizes the shared construction and distribution of knowledge around and through the technology (Cole, 1995; Greeno, 1997; Lave, 1988; Edwards and Mercer, 1987; Rogoff, 1990; Pea, 1993). It is also argued that there is need to take into accountthe wider political, social and cultural context of ICT, so as to fully understand the nature of classroom interaction (Crook, 1994; Hewitt and Scardamalia, 1998; Luke, 1997; Säljö, 1999). This approach enables a focused consideration of the role of the teacher in supporting children's literacy with ICT (Mercer and Fisher, 1998; and Wegerif and Scrimshaw, 1997) and has influenced the development of 'knowledge building communities' (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1994; Hewitt and Scardamalia, 1998).

The paper contends that this 'situative' perspective, because of its attention to the nature social interaction, offers a view that may help to explain how teachers can best interact with children to support their learning. Different models of teacher assistance are then explored in order to establish the role of guided participation and scaffolding learning in relation to ICT and early literacy.

In the second section of the paper a research project carried out in twenty primary school classes with children aged between 3 and 8 years is discussed. Previous papers given at ECER (see Waller, 1998 and Waller, 2000a)have reported the project in more detail, discussed ICT and literacy, and provided an overview of preliminary findings. The intention of this paper is to present the conclusions to the project, focusing particularly on evidence from video material of teacher-child interaction in the context of literacy and ICT activities, and the teachers' comments following their viewing of the video material. Young children in nursery and school at the present time are active participants in a community and a culture where the use of technology is a regular, and growing, part of daily life (Luke, 1999; Roskos and Hanbali, 2000 etc). This paper will argue that it is this experience and awareness that has potential for teachers to build on in the classroom, in order to help young children towards literacy.

The paper concludes with a discussion the findings of the study in relation to previous research and makes a number of specific points about the nature of teacher-child interaction around the computer during literacy sessions. The problematic nature of identifying and describing scaffolding and joint activity in the classroom is considered and a conceptual and theoretical position will be advanced in the light of the study to suggest ways forward for research in the field.

Emerging themes from recent research on ICT and pedagogy

A number of consistent themes have emerged from the literature and these are now briefly reviewed in order to clarify the position regarding the use of ICT in the literacy learning of young children, and identify an appropriate research agenda.

Information technology has become part of everyday life and its use is now common place in both personal and business spheres, and by children from an early age. In the United Kingdom (UK) the introduction of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) into primary school classrooms has been one of the most significant changes in recent years. Although there has been considerable interest in the UK, and throughout the world, in the impact of computers on education(Collis et al., 1996; Leu, 2000; Luke, 1999; Somekh and Davis, 1997, etc), there has been relatively little published research on how the technology may best be used. As Collis et al. (1996: 117) suggest, there is "no simple answer about how best to use computers in education". Further, almost all of the research conducted, so far, into the influence of ICT in the classroom has been with secondary and older primary children. Relatively few studies have focused on the use of technology by children under eight years of age (Baker, 2000, Labbo, 2000; Luke, 1999).

a) Further insight is needed into instructional approaches with ICT

As Baker (2000) has pointed out, a considerable body of research has investigated aspects of the integration of literacy instruction and technology, but few studies have examined the instructional approaches used for such integration. Following Moseley and Higgins et al. (1999: ix), the overall conclusion reached from the analysis of the available literature suggests that "there were clear possibilities for ICT but that were no guaranteed solutions as to what would work in a particular context". The use of ICT in the classroom is dependent upon a range of contextual variables (Collis et al., 1996; Bruce, 1997). These involve not only a teacher's particular skill and confidence in using the technology, but also their understanding of how ICT can be beneficial to learning, and crucially the participation, skill and understanding of the children. Labbo et al. (2000) offer a model for investigations of early literacy and technology in the classroom, where ICT is integrated into normal practice and Haugland and Wright (1997) argue that this practice must be 'developmentally appropriate' for children's learning to benefit. The critical issue about technology and young children is not if it should be used but how it is best used to enhance their development.

Further, as Topping and McKenna (1999), Labbo and Reinking (1999) and Leu (2000) argue, whilst the current educational focus on print-based technologies has been a very important and useful one, electronic literacies are rapidly changing and children need to be prepared to use and understand them. Electronic Literacy refers to literacy activities (for example, in reading, writing, and spelling) that are delivered, supported, accessed, or assessed digitally through computers or other electronic means rather than on paper. Leu (2000: 1) suggests that "the rapid appearance in many of our classrooms of networked information and communication technology (ICT), such as the Internet, requires us to fundamentally redefine our understanding of the literacy curriculum".

Also, as Daiute (2000) and Rivalland (2000) point out, children need to be taught critical literacy so that they are aware of the values in all texts and can evaluate and make use of these texts within appropriate contexts.

In future, a great deal more work needs to be undertaken on investigating the pedagogy of teaching and learning with ICT, especially in early years environments. Further research is needed to better understand the learning paths for teachers and children using ICT in a particular context. Very few studies have focused on the individual teacher's and child's use in the classroom. Collis et al. (1996: 117) argue that the whilst the impact and problems of ICT are the same across cultures, and that children are generally benefiting from and enjoying their use of computers when they have access, the teacher is a critical influence.

b) The 'scaffolding' role of the teacher in teaching and learning with ICT is crucial

Collins et al. (1997) point out that the potential of ICT is rarely realised because the effective use of software is dependent on the teacher providing appropriate support or 'scaffolding' for learning. Whatever the suggested benefits of a particular type of software (or hardware), it is when the teacher assists and guides the child's learning that these benefits are fully realised (Mercer and Fisher, 1997a; Waller, 1999). Medwell (1998), also, argues that talking books are used most effectively to support reading with the teacher, not as a replacement for the teacher. Technology on its own does not enhance learning; teachers need to incorporate ICT very carefully into the curriculum. The role of the teacher in facilitating learning experiences at the computer is, therefore, seen as highly significant. The teacher is the main defining influence on the structure and outcomes of a computer based activity (Mercer and Fisher, 1997a). The teacher shapes the children's learning through setting up the activity, interventions made during activity and the ways (before and after time at the screen) children are enabled to relate the activity to other educational experience (1997a: 210). Mercer and Fisher discuss a conception of scaffolding that offers a signpost for further educational research. Their conception of scaffolding is one where teachers support children's problem solving without taking over responsibility and use specific discourse when intervening in children's learning. Mercer and Fisher, however, do not consider how teachers' cognitive support may be planned and designed in terms of computer related activities and this is something that could be usefully pursued in future research. They suggest that:

If we can describe and evaluate the ways that teachers attempt to scaffold children's learning with computers then we might be able to helpteachers understand and perform theirrole in supporting children's computer based activities.

(Mercer and Fisher, 1997a: 210)

Scanlon et al. (1999), argue for a methodology in which the data collection also focuses on children's and teacher's perceptions of the purpose of the tasks set and the history of the interaction and collaboration of the community of enquiry.

c) Consideration of how ICT impacts on children and the world of childhood is important

A noticeable trend within the literature on ICT and learning (Collis et al., 1996; Knezek et al., 1996 and Luke, 1999, for example) is that there has been relatively little concern about the impact of the computer on the child. Luke (1999) has argued that digital and electronic media has a significant influence on childhood and she suggests that children's early literacy and play experiences are shaped increasingly by electronic media. The work of Yelland (1999) concerning the influence of digital toys on children's play experiences is a useful starting point for investigations of their early literacy development.

The possibility of children developing an appropriate ICT capability also depends on their access to computers at both home and school and it should be recognised that in some schools there are limited resources and there is a also a variable provision at home (Sanger, 1997; Downes, 1998). There are, therefore, obvious problems of access and equity. Whilst it is not the purpose of this paper to consider these issues in detail, it should be acknowledged that there is a serious concern that electronic literacy will merely further the advantage of the already advantaged, giving rise to the emergence of an 'information underclass' (Downes, 1998; Topping, 1997; Rivalland, 2000). Topping (1997: 4) argues that those disadvantaged by socio-economic circumstances and/or learning disabilities should be the subject of positive discrimination. He suggests that "they need a 'head start' in electronic literacy, if they are not to be left even further behind. This implies exposure at a very early age and continuing high-quality support".

Further, there is increasing interest in the potential of supporting family literacy with new technology. The integration of electronic literacy with family literacy has been termed 'family electronic literacy' (Topping 1997). Topping and McKenna (1999) advocate an approach to 'family electronic literacy' that builds on the objectives and strengths of family literacy and parental involvement in reading schemes (Topping and Wolfendale, 1987). There is, however, only limited published research into this development as yet (for example, Hughes and Coyne, 1996; Labbo and Watkins, 1996). Lynch (1998) demonstrates how ICT can be used to promote successful links between schools and the local community and Leask et al. (2000) discuss a number of projects in the UK to linking home and school use of ICT, in particular the Dockland's Learning Acceleration Project in London (see Barker, 2000).

Future research into the nature of interaction and scaffolding around computers in the classroom can build on insights from knowledge building communities (Hewitt and Scardamalia, 1998) that can be allied to the work of Mercer and Fisher (1997a), Wegerif and Scrimshaw (1997) and Littleton and Light (1999) concerning scaffolding, talk and ICT. However, in order toidentify and fully explainthe nature of situated and distributed cognition involved, the research must alsorecognise the wider context (Luke, 1999; Säljö, 1999), as well as collecting data which analyses the classroom context in which children and teachers are working and learning. Crucially, the research will need to take into account the children's and teacher's perceptions of this context (Scanlon et al., 1999).

Finally, Labbo and Reinking's (1999) view of technology in literacy instruction as a set of possibilities in relation to 'multiple realities' offers a framework for research. The perspective of multiple realities allows for the consideration of the extremely rapid advances of digital technologies that make it difficult, but not impossible, to create any meaningful, stable research-to-practice connection. Further, they support the view of Leu et al. (1999) who advocate explorations of computer-related literacy innovations that are conducted throughout a network of teachers who are willing to form a learning community that extends beyond the walls of the classroom or school environment.

Scaffolding

The process of scaffolding is now explored in some detail in order to inform the background to the research project focusing on the interaction between children and teachers when using ICT for literacy.

Through the process of 'scaffolding', the adult guides and supports the child's learning by building on what the child is able to do (Wood et al., 1976; Bruner, 1978; Wells, 1987; Tharp and Gallimore, 1998). Originally, little attention was paid to the means by which the transfer of responsibility from the adult to the child was accomplished. As Tharp and Gallimore (1998: 99) point out, there are various means of assisting a child's performance and they are all qualitatively different. More recent discussions of the term scaffolding have, therefore, included a greater emphasis on the specific mechanisms of transfer (see Bruner, 1983). Stone (1998) identifies a move from an emphasis on relations in which the adult is directing to an emphasis on mutuality. This trend can be discerned in the terms used to describe the scaffolding process: guided participation (Rogoff, 1990), instructional conversation (Tharp and Gallimore, 1988) and guided co-operative learning (Brown and Palinscar, 1989).

Cook and Finlayson (1999: 96) have suggested that teachers need to make decisions about the use of ICT before children are involved and that these advanced decisions about how software supports the learning activity can be termed 'pre-scaffolding'. For Tharp (1993) assisted performance begins with a child's current level of thinking and understanding, consequently allowing the child a meaningful role in the setting of the instructional task or goal. The process includes helping behaviours by the teacher that assist the child to pursue these goals and move from one level to the next; by pulling performance from the child, so a productive communication or creation by the child is the vehicle for instantiating new knowledge (Tharp, 1993: 272). In assisting children's performance teachers need to have a clear view of learning goals and recognise that their role is that of supporting learners in such a way as to allow them gradually to do more for themselves. The amount of assistance offered, and the manner in which support is given, will vary from child to child, across time and in relation to the difficulty of the task (Bruner, 1985). Tharp outlines seven strategies that can be used by teachers to assist performance so that an instructional conversation can be established.

  • Modelling: allowing the child to observe the way an experienced person accomplishes a task,
  • Contingency management: the teacher makes use of rewards and sanctions so that the learner is supported in completing the task,
  • Instructing: especially useful when the learner cannot manage everything alone, the teacher provides information or asks for a particular response so that the learner can help make decisions which help them forward,
  • Questioning: the teacher tries to help the learner think through ideas to make a talk response which is more significant than could have been made without the 'probe'.
  • Cognitive structuring: the teacher offers structure or explanation which helps the learner make sense of their new learning.
  • Task Structuring: the teacher organises the task so that learners, with this support, are able to operate in the ZPD when, without this help, the task would be too much for them.
  • Feedback: this allows the learner to judge how close his or her effort is to the target to be achieved.

(Tharp, 1993: 272)