Cognition and Intelligence
Algorithm / -systemic, mechanical approaches that guarantee an eventual answer to a problemHeuristic / -intuitive rules of thumb
-short cuts in problem solving
Insight / -sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem
Prototype / -a model
-“best example” of a particular thing
Fixation / - Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
Mental Set / -Tendency to approach a problem with the mindset of what has worked previously
Functional Fixedness / - trapped in seeing one particular prescribed use for some object / ex. Looking for a screwdriver when a dime would turn the screw
Confirmation Bias / -the search for information that supports a particular view
-hinders problem solving by distorting objectivity
Representative Heuristic / -judge objects and events in terms of how closely they match the prototype of that object of event / -ex: high school athletes are less intelligent
Availability Heuristic / - judged by what events come readily to mind
Overconfidence Bias / -the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
Framing / -the way a question is phrased
Belief Perseverance / -a person only sees the evidence that supports a particular position despite evidence presented to the contrary (Stubbornness)
Belief Bias / -the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions to seem invalid
Phoneme / -smallest unit of speech sounds in a given language that are still distinct in sound from each other / -ex: “ch”
Morpheme / -phonemes combines to create these, the smallest semantically meaningful parts of language / -ex: review consists of 2 morphemes
Grammar / -a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
Semantics / -a set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences
Syntax / -set of rules used for appropriate word order
Stages of Language Acquisition / -infants make cooing noises (utterance of phonemes)
-babbling (phonemes within infants’ home language)
- “holophrases” (one word stage)
- two word stage and telegraphic speech
Holophrastic Speech / -single terms that are applied by the infants to broad categories of things
Telegraphic Speech / -two or three word groups
-sounds like a telegram / ex. want juice
Critical period / -proposes a window of time during which a child is especially ready to learn language and which further suggests that if that opportunity is missed that it might be too late to catch up
-intertwined with nature/nurture themes
-refers to a time during which a skill or ability must develop
Chomsky vs. Skinner / -Chomsky: Nativist perspective, idea that human brain has an innate capacity for acquiring language (language acquisition device) possibly during a critical period of time after birth; born with universal sense of grammar; “pre wired” for language
-Skinner: nurture view, language learned through a shaping process, reinforcement, and imitation
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis / -speakers of diff languages develop diff cognitive systems as a result of differences in language
-language guides and determines thinking; language influences thought
-language determines and limits experiences / -ex: people of Burma have many words for rice b/c it’s critical to way of life, it involves more categorization and complexity
Intelligence
Flynn Effect / -recent finding that IQ scores in America have steadily risen in the last half century while SAT scores have declined in that same period
Stanford- Binet Test / -widely used intelligence test measuring an individual’s “IQ” (intelligence quotient)
-mental age divided by chronological age times 100
G-factor / -general intelligence which can be empirically assessed
-“G” is supported by specific abilities (“S”) like mathematical computation, ability to read and write, etc.
Savant Syndrome / -individuals with serious cognitive limitations such as mental retardation who possess a remarkable talent in, for example, music or art
Crystallized vs. Fluid Intelligence / -crystallized: specific knowledge of facts and information
-fluid: ability to think in terms of abstract concepts and symbolic relationships
Emotional Intelligence / -EQ
-builds on interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
-ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
-suggested by Robert Goleman
Achievement vs. Aptitude / -achievement tests: assess knowledge gained
-aptitude tests: evaluate a person’s abilities / ex: AP exams (achievement)
ex: SAT (aptitude)
Standardization / -assessments given in same manner, under same time limitations, & with identical instructions
- tested on sample before hand
Normal Bell Curve / -if we could assess the IQ of every human being and then plot each score, we would have a perfectly symmetrical distribution with the largest percentage of individuals falling within 1 standard deviation away from the mean in either direction
-very small percentage would fall at either extreme
Reliability / -measure of how consistent test is in measurement provided; likelihood an individual would get similar score if tested w/ same test on separate occasions
-test-retest method – give participants a test, later give same test
-split-half – 1 group takes half the test, another group takes other half
-equivalent form - diff but similar tests covering same concepts
-inter-rater – score one grader assigns correlates with score another grader gives
-intra-rater – score a grader gives on test match score he gave to same test when he unknowingly grades it again
Validity / -extent that test measures what it intends to; calculated by comparing how well results from test correlate w/ other measures that assess what test is supposed to predict
-test can be reliable but not valid
-predictive validity: correlation b/t test and future performance
-content validity: does assessment test appropriate content?
-construct validity: degree to which test measures what it is supposed to
-face validity: does test evaluate what it claims to evaluate?
-criterion validity: do results from assessment correlate with results from other measures designed to assess similar or related things?
WAIS, WISC / -Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
-Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
- common intelligence tests
Degrees of Mental Retardation / -4 levels
-mild – educable (IQ: 50-70)
-moderate – trainable (IQ: 30-50)
-severe – adult supervision (IQ: 20-30)
-profound – brain dead (IQ: below 20)
Heritability of Intelligence / -50-60% of intelligence is hereditary
-heritability coefficient: ranges from 0-1, rough measure of proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genetic effects
Cultural Bias/Fairness / -biases that are part of standardized intelligence tests
-peoples' own background is a disadvantage to them for these tests
Alfred Binet / -father of intelligence testing
-working to build a test that could help French officials identify children who could not reasonably be expected to thrive in public schools
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences / -7 different types of intelligences: linguistic, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
-currently working on 8th intelligence: naturalistic
Robert Sternberg / -Triarchic Theory: 3 kinds of intelligence: creative, practical, and analytical
-Triangular Theory of Love: 3 basic possible elements in a “love” relationship: passion, commitment, and intimacy