CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
IN
MOMBASA
April 2010
PREFACE
Like many developing countries, Kenya has been experiencing the demographic phenomenon of urbanization which is one of the drivingforces for the mushrooming of informal settlements on the fringe of urban centres. Recent surveys show that about 70 per cent of the urbanpopulation in Kenya live in informal settlement in already marginalized environments prone to increased inland flooding, drought, waterscarcity, temperature extremes or sea level rise. The aim of this paper is to understand the challenges with adaptation to climate change inthe informal settlements of Mombasa. It highlights the key issues related to hazards, vulnerability and the adaptation strategies undertakenby residents of informal settlements. The paper also takes note of the increase in environmental migrants in Mombasa’s slums and highlightssome key lessons for efficient adaptation to climate change in these settlements.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
1.MOMBASA CITY
1.1Historical Development and Land use Patterns
1.2Population Characteristics
1.2.1Population size and distribution
1.2.2Population growth rate
1.2.3Migration Trends
1.3Economic Structure
1.4Social Structure:
1.4.1Literacy Levels (gender)
1.4.2Healthcare
1.4.3Housing Structures
1.4.4Marginalised groups
2CLIMATE CHANGE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS
2.1Hazards
2.1.1Sea Level Rise:
2.1.2Flooding:
2.1.3High Average temperatures and humidity:
2.1.4Land slides:
2.2Vulnerability
2.3Adaptive Capacities
2.3.1Community Adaptation
2.3.2Enforcing Legislation
2.3.3Development Planning
2.3.4Stakeholder Initiatives
3CONCLUSION
1.MOMBASA CITY
The city of Mombasa is considered to be Mombasa districtand consists of four divisions, namely, Mombasa Island, Kisauni, Likoniand Changamwe. Situated within Kenya’s coast province in the southeastof the country, Mombasa is Kenya’s second largest city. It is situatedabout 4.10 south of the equator and 39.70 east of Greenwich meantime.
1.1Historical Development and Land use Patterns
Mombasa town is part of the old towns in east Africa known to have a rich legacy and history. Some of the earliest settlements were confined to the island due to the security factor especially with regard to defense against water based offensives. The original Arabic name is Manbasa; in Kiswahili it is called Kisiwa Cha Mvita (or Mvita for short), which means "Island of War", due to the many changes in its ownership. The town is also the headquarters of Mombasa District which, like most other districts in Kenya, is named after its chief town. The earliest history of Mombasa is mostly legendary and is associated with two rulers: Mwana Mkisi (female) and Shehe Mvita, who are seen as the founders of the city. According to oral history and medieval commentaries (also based on oral history), Shehe Mvita superseded the dynasty of Mwana Mkisi and established his own town on Mombasa Island. Shehe Mvita is remembered as a Muslim of great learning and so is connected more directly with the present ideals of Swahili culture that people identify with Mombasa. Most of the early information on Mombasa comes from Portuguese chroniclers writing in the sixteenth century though the famous Moroccan scholar and traveler Ibn Battuta did visit Mombasa in 1331 on his travels on the eastern coast of Africa and made some mention of the city.
One of the earliest people to settle was called Mvita – who lent the name to Mvita, the official name of the island. Changamwe is thought to have derived its name from the original residents of the area i.e. Mchangamwe – a Duruma by tribe. Another theory about the area holds that, the areas local brew ‘Changaa’ ma’ could be the origin of the name Changamwe. The earliest settlers to arrive in the area settled around Hola thus the name ‘Kwa Hola’ translated as Hola’s place. The original inhabitants of Northern Changamwe are the Wa Jomvu. Mombasa’s interior areas are dominated by the Miji Kenda communities who too have had an impact in the shaping and defining of the town’s present status. During the period of the Indian ocean trade, the Arabs came and settled amongst the communities at the coast leading to inter marriages and later cultural interchanges that reflected in the culture, religion, architecture, belief systems and even the linguistic position of the coast leading to the rise of the Swahili culture and the Swahili language thought to be the biggest linguistic factor in the East Coast of Africa and the language most used by Africans that is African.
The nature of the settlements at the time of the arrival of the missionaries was informed by the settlement patterns taken by the previous groups especially the dominance of the island by the Arabs. By the time of the coming of the colonialists, Mombasa was the most developed in Kenya, leading to their decision to establish their headquarters at the coastal town. However, this decision was revised later and the capital shifted to Nairobi, after the railway line arrived there. This served to redefine the reinforcements that led to the growth of Mombasa. The decision to move the capital to Nairobi was largely due to its more central location in relation to the entire nation – Kenya, as opposed to Mombasa. The availability of land for development was a greater pull factor to Nairobi and so is the cool climate the settlers and colonialists found there that had better parallels with the European climate, Mombasa on the hand was hot and humid – a malaria endemic area, that the colonialists were ill prepared to cope with. However, these mid term decisions didn’t severe the growth potential of the town. Land wise, the following events served as defining moments on the delicate question of land ownership at the town. First, the direct role of Sultan of Zanzibar over the “Coastal strip” stretching along the entire length of coastline and 10 miles deep, Second, the establishment of the British protectorate at the turn of the 19th century which brought and end to the sultan’s role, And thirdly, Kenya’s independence. These events left a legacy that lives on to date.
The property rights of the sultan’s subjects for example, were protected and claims to land recorded and registered as Freehold Titles. The remainder of the coastal strip was declared “crown land” (Now Government Land), a situation still prevailing to date. This explains the large tracks of land owned by the Mazrui Arabs in Takaungu, the Swaleh Nguru, s of Mombasa etc, the large Arab owned holdings in Mambrui and Bakshweni land in Malindi, Kwale etc. After independence, the property rights of the Arab claimants and other registered Title holders were maintained, while the remaining areas in the Native reserves were under the Trust-land act – set out as Trust and entrusted to local authorities to be administered forthe benefit of the people “Normally/habitually” resident in the area. The historical perspective has a strong bearing on the categories of land-use and Land Tenure found today in much of Coast Province. At independence, the importance of the Kilindini harbor for the economy of the independent state served to re energize her growth potentials. The establishment of the Changamwe oil refinery at the coastal town due to the closeness of the port led to the influx other industries that were dependent on imported raw materials or involved the export of bulky or inflammable products as both an economic factor and as a risk cutting factor. Presently, the town is cosmopolitan with the main settlement areas being around the island, Kisauni, Changamwe and Likoni. Population wise, Kisauni has the biggest population that resides in the Mishomoroni, Bombolulu, and Nyali up market area, Bamburi, Mtopanga amongst others.
Mombasa district has experienced a 44% increase in population in the last 10 years. The increase in population is as a result of natural growth and in-migration, mostly of the labour force from other parts of the country. The high population has proved to be a serious challenge in the provision of essential services like water, sanitation and health care.
A land use classification study (Agil Saleh, 1999) indicates that only 31.2% of the total land area in Mombasa district is under residential settlements. The direction of growth in human settlements is northwards, concentrated in Kisauni Division, where other socio-economic activities occupy large parcels of land. This has entailed the crowding of many people in small areas with serious social implications
These crowded human settlements have the poorest sanitation and generally poor infrastructure facilities, resulting in a myriad of environmental problems. (Gatabaki-Kamau et al, 2000).
1.2Population Characteristics
1.2.1Population size and distribution
According to Kenya’s National Bureau of Statistics, Mombasa districthad a population of 665,081 persons in 1999, and is projected to increaseto approximately 870,197 in 2008.(3) The distribution of the population in the coast region is largely influenced by rainfall, altitude, agro-ecological area and administrative policy through which a number of settlements schemes have been created (Hoorweg et al., 2000). Due to location of most of the country’s coastal urban centres in the vicinity of estuaries, mangrove swamps and coral lagoons, the rapid growth in population places significant pressure on the coastal environment and its resources.
Table 4.1: Population data for the fivedivisions in Mombasa District in 2002
Division / Name / Population / Percentage / Female male ratio / Youth / Area (km2) / Density1 / Likoni / 93,340 / 14.28 / 50.42 / 1,851.25
2 / Changamwe / 171,520 / 26.23 / 53.38 / 3,213.19
3 / Mombasa Island / 141,420 / 21.63 / 13.76 / 10,277.62
4 / Kisauni 1 / 5,370 / 0.82 / 10.16 / 528.54
5 / Kisauni 2 / 242,160 / 37.04 / 99.39 / 2,436.46
653,810 / 100.00 / 82.82 / 186,386 / 227.11 / 2,878.83
Source: GOK 2002: Mombasa Profile (Unpublished data);
The coastal population in Kenya is culturally heterogeneous and diverse, the largest indigenous ethnic group being the Mijikenda which is comprised of nine sub-tribes namely: Giriama, Digo, Rabai, Duruma, Kauma, Chonyi, Kambe, Ribe, and Jibana. Other indigenous coastal ethnic groups are: Taita, Pokomo, Bajuni, Orma, Sagala, Swahili. Due to its socio-economic dynamics which offer great opportunities for livelihoods and leisure, the Kenyan coast has over the centuries attracted a multiplicity of ethnic and racial groups (UNEP, 1998).
1.2.2Population growth rate
The coast province population growth rate as at the 1999 census was 3.5% compared to 3.1% during the previous census conducted in 1989 (GOK, 1999). As at 1989 census, Tana River District had the highest population growth rate of 4% followed by Mombasa District with a growth rate of 3.9%. Taita-Taveta district had the lowest population growth rate of 2%. By international standards, a population growth rate of over 3% is considered high as such a rate results in increasing demands on all types of resources required to meet the basic needs of the population in terms of food, health, education and shelter. The high population increase in Mombasa district as compared to other districts is attributed to the net immigration from upcountry (GOK, 1999).
Migration to the coastal region is mainly due to employment opportunities, the growth of tourism industry and access to social facilities among others. The rapidly increasing human population combined with poor resource management has led to degradation of coastal resources as indicated by impacts such as over-exploitation in nearshore fisheries, degradation of mangrove areas, shorelines changes and cultural erosion.
1.2.3Migration Trends
The coast province has received a significant number of immigrants from other parts of Kenya over the last century thereby accounting partly for the population change experienced in the long term. Labour migration of upcountry people into the coast province can be traced back as far back as 1909 when people from Central and Nyanza provinces were moving in large numbers to Mombasa and coastal plantations. The number of migrants into the coast region increased from about 222,000 between 1969 and 1979 to 275,000 during the following decade. The main recipient districts for immigrants are mainly Mombasa and Kilifi Districts (GOK, 1999).
Most people who have migrated into the coast province in the last twenty years come from Eastern, Nyanza, Western and Central Provinces. Eastern Province was a leading origin with 86,739 migrants followed by Nyanza Province with 62,404 migrants to the coast in 1989. In 1989 alone, the Mombasa and Kilifi received 266,131 and 42,164 migrants respectively. Out of a total of 421,935 migrants to Coast Province in 1989, 16,441 were from outside Kenya. As much as 1,252 of these were not registered. Mombasa district has also received the biggest number of foreign immigrants (GOK, 1999).
The high level of migration into the coast region is of great concern because it is increasing the demand on scarce resources with consequent degradation of the coastal environment.The welfare of the people is influenced by the availability, distribution and utilisation of education, health and employment options.
1.3Economic Structure
Mombasa residents derive their livelihoodsfrom a variety of economic activities, ranging from small-scaleagriculture, livestock production and fishing, especially in the peri-urbanspace, to formal employment in different sectors, including industry. Someof the major industries in Mombasa include cement manufacturing fromthe abundant limestone, salt processing from seawater, and businessesassociated with import and export at the city’s port. Food security andgeneral economic performance is however very low; the latest availablefigures (from 1997) show that 38.2 per cent of the population face absolutepoverty and 38.6 per cent face food poverty.(4)Mombasa is the largest seaport in East Africa and has two harbours –Kilindini and Old Port. It plays an important role in both the country’sand the region’s economy because the commercial imports and exports ofland-locked countries such as Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, SouthernSudan and even parts of Tanzania transit through Mombasa. Anythingaffecting the port, and by extension the city’s operations, is therefore likelyto be felt beyond the coastal and national boundaries. The city is also apopular tourist destination due to the presence of various terrestrial andmarine-based ecological attractions, including warm weather, sandy beaches,and historical and cultural monuments. Tourism remains an importantforeign exchange earner for Kenya and contributed more than 12 per centof the Gross Domestic Product in 2004 and continues to grow. (5)
The economy in the urban centres depends on maritime and harbour activities, commerce and tourism. The latter depends heavily on the rich biological diversity and the health of the environment. Increasing human pressure and associated unsustainable practices pose threat to the natural resources. Degradation of coral reefs and mangrove forests, for instance, has caused reduced nearshore fisheries productivity and coastal erosion (see chapter 6). This is in turn impoverishing the socio-economic livelihoods of the local people in the affected areas (GOK, 2002).
Industrial development which for many years was confined to Mombasa District and its environs is now expanding towards the rural coastline and hinterland in other coastal districts (GOK, 2002). It is likely that this trend together with the development of eco-tourism, improvement of agricultural practices, intensified mining activities, and enhanced access to social services in rural areas will curb the rural-urban migration, ease the pressure on service delivery in the few developed urban centres and, thus make environmental management easier.
Employment Distribution
Kenyan coastal economy is highly dependent on natural resources on which various activities are based namely agriculture, maritime trade, tourism, fishing and mining among others. The resources also support various cultural and spiritual values of the local people. The formal economy of the coast province is anchored on Service and Industrial sectors (CDA, 2004). The contributions of the major sectors to the coast economy are presented in Fig 5.1. The principal economic activities that contribute to the livelihood of the people based on natural resources are: tourism (45%), port and shipping (15%), agricultural industry (8%), fisheries (6%), agriculture (5%), forestry (4%), and mining (2%) (McClanahan et al., 2005a; UNEP/FAO/PAP/CDA, 2000). The informal sector which includes garages and second-hand clothing dealers, the mobile fruit and vegetable vendors to shoe shine and repairs, and hair saloon also constitute a significant proportion of other services.
1.4Social Structure:
1.4.1Literacy Levels (gender)
The coast province remains one of the least educationally developed regions in the country. According to government statistics, both Kwale and Kilifi districts experienced the highest enrolment rate between 2002 and 2004 compared to other districts in the coast province (fig 4.2). In the same period both Lamu and Taita Taveta districts enrolment rate continue to lag behind other regions, although there was slight improvement in the latter. The low enrolment rate is attributed mainly to poor facilities, lack of equipment, teachers, and early marriage of girls. In secondary schools there is a profound lack of dormitories, workshops, laboratories and electricity especially in the marginal areas.
Primary school enrolment in the coastal districts between 2002- 2004 (Data Source: GOK, 2005)
Overall, literacy levels are low in the coast province, being higher in urban than rural areas. A significant disparity in literacy is found between men and women, with that of women being much lower. Kilifi, Tana River and Kwale Districts have the highest disparities between men and women (Hoorweg et al., 2000).
1.4.2Healthcare
Health and diseases at the Kenya coast are largely influenced by a number of factors associated with poverty, poor health, infrastructure and the environment. The low levels of adult education and adherence to the traditional healthcare compound the situation (UNEP, 1998). Table 4.3 gives the status of the health infrastructure in the coast province.
High costs hamper the use of modern health services in most parts of the coast province. Studies have shown that in Kwale District, for instance, high costs hamper the use of modern health services for 10-30% of the population (GOK, 1994). As a result, many people (>40%) have turned to traditional healers. Utilization of traditional medicinal practitioners has been found to be higher if the mother has no formal education or is a Muslim. The impact of the use of traditional medicine on the environment has, however, not been studied and therefore there is need for this to be established with a view to promoting sustainable use strategies.