Charleston Harbor, South Carolina

Fort Sumter

April 12 - 14, 1861

Charleston Harbor, South Carolina

When South Carolina seceded from the Union on December 20, 1860, United States Maj. Robert Anderson and his force of 85 soldiers were positioned at Fort Moultrie near the mouth of Charleston Harbor. On December 26, fearing for the safety of his men, Anderson moved his command to Fort Sumter, an imposing fortification in the middle of the harbor. While politicians and military commanders wrote and screamed about the legality and appropriateness of this provocative move, Anderson’s position became perilous. Just after the inauguration of President Abraham Lincoln on March 4, 1861, Anderson reported that he had only a six week supply of food left in the fort and Confederate patience for a foreign force in its territory was wearing thin.

On Thursday, April 11, 1861, Confederate Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard dispatched aides to Maj. Anderson to demand the fort’s surrender. Anderson refused. The next morning, at 4:30 a.m., Confederate batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter and continued for 34 hours. The Civil War had begun! Anderson did not return the fire for the first two hours. The fort's supply of ammunition was not suited for an equal fight and Anderson lacked fuses for his exploding shells--only solid shot could be used against the Rebel batteries. At about 7:00 A.M., Union Capt.Abner Doubleday, the fort's second in command, was afforded the honor of firing the first shot in defense of the fort.

The firing continued all day, although much less rapidly since the Union fired aimed to conserve ammunition. "The crashing of the shot, the bursting of the shells, the falling of the walls, and the roar of the flames, made a pandemonium of the fort," wrote Doubleday. The fort's large flag staff was struck and the colors fell to the ground and a brave lieutenant, Norman J. Hall,bravely exposed himself to enemy fire as he put the Stars and Stripes back up. That evening, the firing was sporadic with but an occasional round landing on or in Fort Sumter.

On Saturday, April 13, Anderson surrendered the fort. Incredibly, no soldiers were killed in battle. The generous terms of surrender, however, allowed Anderson to perform a 100-gun salute before he and his men evacuated the fort the next day. The salute began at 2:00 P.M. on April 14, but was cut short to 50 guns after an accidental explosion killed one of the gunners and mortally wounded another. Carrying their tattered banner, the men marched out of the fort and boarded a boat that ferried them to the Union ships outside the harbor. They were greeted as heroes on their return to the North.

Winner: CSA

Principal Commanders: Maj. Robert Anderson [USA]; Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard

[CSA]

Estimated Casualties: None

Bull Run

First Manassas

July 21, 1861

Fairfax County and Prince William County , Virginia

Though the Civil War began when Confederate troops shelled Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, the war didn’t begin in earnest until the Battle of Bull Run, fought in Virginia just miles from Washington DC, on July 21, 1861. Popular fervor led President Lincoln to push a cautious Brigadier General Irvin McDowell, commander of the Union armyin Northern Virginia,to attack the Confederate forces commanded by Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard, which held a relatively strong position along Bull Run, just northeast of Manassas Junction. The goal was to make quick work of the bulk of the Confederate army, open the way to Richmond, the Confederate capital, and end the war.

The morning of July 21st dawned on two generals planning to outflank their opponent’s left. Hindering the success of the Confederate plan were several communication failures and general lack of coordination between units. McDowell’s forces, on the other had, were hampered by an overly complicated plan that required complex synchronization. Constant and repeated delays on the march and effective scouting by the Confederates gave his movements away, and, worst of all Patterson failed to occupy Johnston’s Confederate forces attention in the west. McDowell’s forces began by shelling the Confederates across Bull Run. Others crossed at Sudley Ford and slowly made their way to attack the Confederate left flank. At the same time as Beauregard sent small detachments to handle what he thought was only a distraction, he also sent a larger contingent to execute flanking a flanking movement of his own on the Union left.

Fighting raged throughout the day as Confederate forces were driven back, despite impressive efforts by Colonel Thomas Jackson to hold important high ground at Henry House Hill, earning him the nom de guerre “Stonewall.” Late in the afternoon, Confederate reinforcements including those arriving by rail from the Shenandoah Valley extended the Confederate line and succeeded in breaking the Union right flank. At the battle’s climax Virginia cavalry under Colonel James Ewell Brown “Jeb” Stuart arrived on the field and charged into a confused mass of New Yorkers, sending them fleetly to the rear. The Federal retreat rapidly deteriorated as narrow bridges, overturned wagons, and heavy artillery fire added to the confusion. The calamitous retreat was further impeded by the hordes of fleeing onlookers who had come down from Washington to enjoy the spectacle. Although victorious, Confederate forces were too disorganized to pursue. By July 22, the shattered Union army reached the safety of Washington. The Battle of Bull Run convinced the Lincoln administration and the North that the Civil War would be a long and costly affair. McDowell was relieved of command of the Union army and replaced by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, who set about reorganizing and training the troops

Winner: CSA

Principal Commanders: Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell [US]; Brig. Gen. Joseph E.

Johnston and Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard [CS]

Casualties: USA 2,950; CSA 1,750

Fort Donelson

February 11 - 16, 1862 Stewart County, Tennessee

With Kentucky’s decision to not join the Confederacy, southern military leaders were forced to create key defensive positions along the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, south of the Kentucky border. Forts Henry, Heiman, and Donelson were devised to protect western Tennessee from Union forces using the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers as approach avenues. Unfortunately for the Confederacy, there were few good locations to choose from along the two rivers.

Henry Halleck approved Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant’s plan to move swiftly to attack Fort Henry before Confederate reinforcements could arrive. As Grant’s two divisions began their march south, gunboats under the command of Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote proceeded down river to attack the Confederate forts on the Tennessee. In a swift, violent exchange of gunfire, Forts Heiman and Henry quickly fell to the Union gunboats on February 6, 1862.

Now consolidated around the two former Confederate forts on the Tennessee River, Grant was determined to move quickly on the much larger Fort Donelson, located on the nearby Cumberland River. Grant’s boast that he would capture Donelson by the 8th of February quickly ran into challenges. Poor winter weather, late-arriving reinforcements, and difficulties in moving the ironclads to the Cumberland, all delayed Grant’s departure for Donelson.

Despite being fairly convinced that no earthen fort could withstand the power of the Union gunboats, Confederate Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston allowed the garrison at Fort Donelson to remain and even sent new commanders and reinforcements to the site. On February 11th, Johnston appointed Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd as the commander of Fort Donelson and the surrounding region. 17,000 Confederate soldiers, combined with improved artillery positions and earthworks convinced Floyd that a hasty retreat was unnecessary.

By February 13th, most of Grant’s Union soldiers had arrived in the vicinity of Fort Donelson and had begun to arrange themselves around the landward side of the fort. Several inches of snowfall and a cold winter wind sent shivers through both armies. With Grant’s reinforced army now blocking a landward exit, the Confederate forces knew that they would have to fight their way to freedom.

On February 14, 1862, Foote’s ironclads moved upriver to bombard Fort Donelson. The subsequent duel between Foote’s “Pook Turtles” and the heavy guns at Fort Donelson led to a Union defeat on the Cumberland. Many of Foote’s ironclads were heavily damaged and Foote himself was wounded in the attack. Grant’s soldiers could hear the Confederate cheers as the Union gunboats retreated.

While Grant was now contemplating an extended siege, the Confederate leaders had devised a bold plan to move all the forces they could to the Union right and to force open a path of escape. Early on the morning of February 15th, the Confederate assault struck the Union right and drove it back from its positions on Dudley’s Hill. Brig. Gen. John McClernand’s division attempted to reform their lines, but the ongoing Rebel attacks continued to drive his forces to the southeast. Disaster loomed for the Union army.

But in what would become one of the oddest and most improbable acts on any Civil War battlefield, Confederate Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow, sensing a complete victory over the Union forces, ordered the attacking force back to their earthworks, thereby abandoning the hard-fought gains of the morning.

Grant, who had hurriedly returned to the front, ordered Brig. Gen. Lew Wallace and McClernand to retake their lost ground and then rode to the Union left to order an attack upon the Confederate works opposite Charles Smith’s division. Grant reasoned, correctly, that the Confederate right must be greatly reduced in strength given the heavy Confederate assault on their left. Smith’s division surged up to the works and overwhelmed the one Confederate regiment holding an extended line. Capturing large stretches of the Confederate earthworks, Smith’s division was stopped only by the onset of darkness.

During the night of the 15th and 16th, Confederate leaders discussed their options. Despite many disagreements, it was determined that surrender was the only viable option for the Confederate army. Generals Floyd and Pillow managed to make various excuses and crossed the river to safety. Lt. Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest, disgusted with the Confederate decision to surrender, took his cavalrymen and escaped down the Charlotte Road. Even with these defections, more than 13,000 Confederate soldiers remained at Donelson.

With a Union attack poised to strike Fort Donelson, the Federal soldiers were surprised to see white flags flying above the Confederate earthworks. Brig. Gen. Simon B. Buckner, now left in command, met with Ulysses S. Grant to determine the terms of surrender. Buckner, who was hoping for generous terms from his old West Point friend, was disappointed to get Grant’s response. “No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works.” The great Union victory at Fort Donelson, and Grant’s uncompromising demand brought an avalanche of acclaim to the Brig. General from Galena, Ohio.

Winner: USA

Principal Commanders: Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant [US]; Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd

[CS] and Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman [CS]

Casualties: USA 3,730; CSA 13,925

Shiloh

Pittsburg Landing

April 6 - 7, 1862

Hardin County, Tennessee

Following fall of Forts Henry and Donelson in February of 1862, the commander of Confederate forces in the West, Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, was compelled to withdraw from Kentucky, and leave much of western and middle Tennessee to the Federals. To prepare for future offensive operations, Johnston marshalled his forces at Corinth, Mississippi—a major transportation center. The Confederate retreat was a welcome surprise to Union commander Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, whose Army of the Tennessee would need time to prepare for its own offensive along the Tennessee river. Grant's army made camp at Pittsburg Landing where it spent time drilling raw recruits and awaiting reinforcements in the form of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell’s Army of the Ohio. Johnston needed to strike Grant at Pittsburg Landing before the two Federal armies could unite.

Aware of Grant's location and strength—and that more Yankees were on the way—Johnston originally planned to attack the unfortified Union position on April 4, but weather and other logistical concerns delayed the attack until April 6. The Confederate's morning assault completely surprised and routed many of the unprepared Northerners. By afternoon, the a few stalwart bands of Federals established a battle line along a sunken road, known as the “Hornets Nest.” After repeated attempts to carry the position, the Rebels pounded the Yankees with massed artillery, and ultimately surrounded them. Later in the day Federals established a defensive line covering Pittsburg Landing, anchored with artillery and augmented by Buell’s men, who had begun to arrive. Fighting continued until after dark, but the Federals held. Though they had successfully driven the Yankees back, there was, however, one significant blow to the Confederate cause on April 6. Johnston had been mortally wounded early during the day and command of the Confederate force fell to Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard.

With the addition of Buell's men, the Federal force of around 40,000 outnumbered Beauregard’s army of fewer than 30,000. Beauregard, however, was unaware of Buell’s arrival. Therefore, when William Nelson’s division of Buell’s army launched an attack at 6:00 am on April 7, Beauregard immediately ordered a counterattack. Though Beauregard's counter thrust was initially successful, Union resistance stiffened and the Confederates were compelled to fall back and regroup. Beauregard ordered a second counterattack, which halted the Federals' advance but ultimately ended in stalemate. By this point, Beauregard realized he was outnumbered and, having already suffered tremendous casualties, broke contact with the Yankees to began a retreat to Corinth.

Winner: USA

Principal Commanders: Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant [US]; Gen. Albert Sydney

Johnston [CS]; Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard [CS]

Estimated Casualties: 23,746 total (USA 13,047; CSA 10,699)

Jackson's Valley Campaign

(March-June 1862)

Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson's Valley Campaign of 1862 is one of the most studied campaigns of military history. This campaign demonstrates how a numerically inferior force can defeat larger forces by fast movement, surprise attack, and intelligent use of the terrain. In March 1862, as a Federal force under Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks began to advance cautiously up the Valley, General Jackson retreated to Mount Jackson where he could defend the Valley Turnpike. His task was two-fold--to prevent deep penetration into the Valley and to tie down as many opposing forces as possible. When he learned that Banks was ready to detach part of his force to assist the Army of the Potomac then being concentrated on the Peninsula to threaten Richmond, Jackson marched down the Turnpike and fought the First Battle of Kernstown on March 23.

Although defeated, Jackson's aggressive move convinced Washington that Confederate forces in the Valley posed a real threat to Washington, and Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, with his army preparing to move on Richmond, was denied reinforcements at a critical moment in the Peninsular Campaign.

In late April, Jackson left part of his enlarged command under Maj. Gen. Richard S. Ewell at Swift Run Gap to confront Banks and marched with about 9,000 men through Staunton to meet a second Union army under Maj. Gen. John C. Fremont, whose vanguard approached on the Parkersburg Road from western Virginia. Banks was convinced that Jackson was leaving the Valley to join the Confederate army at Richmond. But on May 8, Jackson turned up to defeat two brigades of Fremont's force, under Brig. Gens. Robert Milroy and Robert Schenck, at McDowell. Although the Confederates suffered more casualties than their counterparts the Battle of McDowell was a victory for the South.

After a short pursuit of the fleeing Federals, Jackson abruptly turned and marched swiftly back in the heart of the Valley to unite with Ewell against Banks. On May 23, Jackson overran a detached Union force at Front Royal and advanced toward Winchester, threatening to cut off the Union army that was concentrated around Strasburg. After a running battle on the 24th along the Valley Turnpike from Middletown to Newtown (Stephens City), Banks made a stand on the heights south of Winchester. On May 25, Jackson attacked and overwhelmed the Union defenders, who broke and fled in a panic to the Potomac River. Banks was reinforced and again started up the Valley Turnpike, intending to link up with Brig. Gen. James Shields's Union division near Strasburg. Shields's division spearheaded the march of Irwin McDowell's corps recalled from Fredericksburg, while Fremont's army converged on Strasburg from the west. Jackson withdrew, narrowly avoiding being cut off from his line of retreat by these converging columns.

The Union armies now began a three-prong offensive against Jackson. Fremont's troops advanced up the Valley Turnpike while Shields's column marched up the Luray Road along the South Fork. At this point nearly 25,000 men were being brought to bear on Jackson's 17,000. Jackson's cavalry commander, Brig. Gen. Turner Ashby was killed while fighting a rear guard action near Harrisonburg on June 6.

Jackson concentrated his forces near the bridge at Port Republic, situating himself between the two Union columns that were separated by the mountain and the rain-swollen Shenandoah South Fork. On June 8, Fremont attacked Ewell's division at Cross Keys but was driven back. The next morning (June 9), Jackson with his remaining force attacked Shields east and north of Port Republic, while Ewell withdrew from Fremont's front burning the bridge behind him. Ewell joined with Jackson to defeat Shields. Both Union forces retreated north, freeing Jackson's army to reinforce the Confederate army at Richmond.