CHAPTER SUMMARY – CHAPTER 16

What Is Motivation?

Define motivation.

Explain the energy, direction, and persistence aspects of motivation.

Motivation is the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and sustained towards attaining a goal. The energy element is a measure of intensity or drive. The effort needs to be channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Finally, motivation includes a persistence dimension in that employees need to persist in putting forth effort to achieve goals.

Early Theories of Motivation

Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and how it can be used to motivate.

Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers approach motivation.

Describe Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory.

Explain Herzberg’s views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs proposes that there are five need levels (physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization) arranged in a hierarchy. Once a need level has been generally satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate behavior. (See Exhibit 16-1.)

According to McGregor, a Theory X manager assumes that people don’t like to work and must be threatened, forced, and directed to work. A Theory Y manager assumes that people like to work and exercise self-direction.

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene (two-factor) theory proposes that the hygiene factors (those associated with job context) keep people from being dissatisfied, but don’t motivate. The motivators (those job factors associated with job content) are the ones that motivate employees. (See Exhibit 16-2.)

Herzberg viewed satisfaction and dissatisfaction as two separate concepts. (See Exhibit 16-3.) Those factors that led to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction were separate and distinct.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Describe the three needs McClelland proposed as being present in work settings.

Explain how goal-setting and reinforcement theories explain employee motivation.

Describe the job characteristics model as a way to design motivating jobs.

Discuss the motivation implications of equity theory.

Contrast distributive justice and procedural justice.

Explain the three key linkages in expectancy theory and their role in motivation.

McClelland’s three needs were the need for achievement (the drive to excel, achieve, and succeed), the need for affiliation (the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships), and the need for power (the need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise).

Intention to work towards a goal is a major source of job motivation. Goal-setting theory says that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. (See Exhibit 16-5.) Reinforcement theory says that behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated.

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) describes jobs in terms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. When these dimensions are designed into a job, positive personal and work outcomes will result. (See Exhibits 16-6 and 16-7.)

Equity theory proposes that employees compare their outcomes/inputs ratio to others to see if there is equity. (See Exhibit 16-8.) If they perceive that inequity exists, they will do something about it. In addition, employee motivation is influenced significantly by relative rewards and absolute rewards.

Distributive justice is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Procedural justice is the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.

Expectancy theory proposes that individual effort leads to individual performance which leads to organizational rewards which influence individual goals. (See Exhibit 16-9.) The theory proposes that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome. The three key linkages are effort-performance (expectancy or the probability that a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance); performance-reward (instrumentality or the degree to which the individual believes performing at that level is instrumental in attaining the desired outcome); and reward-goal (valence or attractiveness of the reward or how important that reward is to the person).

Current Issues in Motivation

Describe the cross-cultural challenges of motivation.

Discuss the challenges managers face in motivating unique groups of workers.

Describe open-book management, employee recognition, pay-for-performance, and stock option programs.

The cross-cultural challenges of motivation have to do with whether the motivation theories are appropriate for that culture.

Employees differ in their motivational requirements. Managers must deal with groups such as: a diverse workforce (the key is flexibility); professionals (the key is offering challenges and support); contingent workers (the key is opportunities for full-time work or education/training); and low-skilled, minimum wage workers (the key is using employee recognition programs).

Open-book management is sharing financial information (opening up “the books”) so employees can see how their work affects the financials. Employee recognition programs are motivational programs consisting of personal attention and expressing appreciation for a job well done. Pay-for-performance programs are variable compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure. Stock options are financial instruments that give employees the right to purchase shares of stock at a set price.