Zambia’s Media Wars
A Critical Analysis of Media coverage of the 2008 Presidential By-Election in Zambia
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Executive Summary
Media scholars have long being intrigued to examine the role of the media in the electoral process of any democratic society especially during election campaigns. The media are expected to educate and inform the electorate on the activities of various players in the political arena. The purpose of this study is to critically analyse the media content of both state and private media to determine how the run up to the 2008 presidential by-election was covered in Zambia. The research specifically analysed the content of news stories. The study revealed significant findings relating to how the selected media houses covered the aforementioned election. Both the quantitative and qualitative analyses showed that there was considerable amount of bias and in some cases lack of objectivity in the way the media coverage of the elections was done. Reportage based on political inclination was conspicuous confirming assertions that the public media were more likely to favour the party in government while the private media favoured the opposition parties. Bias and subjectivity was evident in the number and type of stories covered the number and status of sources quoted the pictures and the accompanying captions, the number of stories that directly quoted the four contesting presidential candidates and the usage of language in the stories. The other findings based on personal interviews with key informants of the various media houses, revealed that they had a great desire to cover the elections in a much fairer way than they did previously but media ownership was the major stumbling block in this quest. This was a factor among the respondents from the public media. In addition, coverage was adversely affected by lack of both financial and human resources. The study also learnt that with the exception of ZNBC the other media houses sampled did not have in – house policies to guide coverage of elections.The study came to a conclusion that coverage of the 30thOctober 2008 presidential by- election campaign was not fair hence the recommendation that the media must take deliberate measures to ensure that election coverage is done in a fair, objective, balanced and ethical way.
Table of Content
Executive Summary
List of tables
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE
1.0 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Significance of the study
CHAPTER TWO: STUDY OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
2.0 General objective
2.1 Methodology
2.2 Research Design
2.3 Definition of analytical categories
2.4 Sampling of the media and dates
2.5 Data Collection and Analysis
CHAPTER THREE: SUMMARY OF THE MEDIA IN ZAMBIA
3.0 Overview
3.1 Print media
3.2 Broadcasting
3.3 News Agency
3.4 Limitations of the study: Lessons Learnt
CHAPTER FOUR: STUDY RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Key findings and quantitative analysis
4.1.0 The Times of Zambia
4.1.1 Number of stories
4.1.2 Number of front page election stories
4.1.3 Number of sources used in the election stories
4.1.4 Number of lead stories published
4.1.5 Number of pictures published
4.1.6 Number of stories about presidential candidates
4.2.0 The Zambia Daily Mail
4.2.1 Number of election stories
4.2.2 Number of front page stories
4.2.3 Number of sources
4.2.4 Number of lead stories
4.2.5 Number of pictures
4.2.6 Number of stories about presidential candidates
4.3.0 The Post Newspaper
4.3.1 Number of stories
4.3.2 Number of front page stories
4.3.3 Number of sources
4.3.4 Number of lead stories
4.3.5 Number of pictures
4.3.6 Number of stories about presidential candidates
4.4.0 The Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC)
4.4.1 Number of stories
4.4.2 Number of headline stories
4.4.3 Number of sources
4.4.4 Number of pictures
4.4.5 Number of stories about presidential candidates
4.5.0 Comparative analysis of media coverage
4.5.1 Number of stories in all the four media houses
4.5.2 Number of sources in all the media houses
4.5.3 Number of stories with female sources in all the four media houses
4.5.4 Number of stories about presidential candidates for all media houses
4.6.0 Comparative print media analysis
4.6.1 Number of lead stories in the three dailies
4.6.2 Number of front page stories in the three dailies
4.7. Qualitative Analysis
4.8.0 Thematic analysis of media content
4.8.1 Headlines and nature of stories
4.8.2 Sources quoted for the stories
4.8.3 Picture analysis and language of captions
4.9.0 Other findings from interviews
4.9.1 Self – assessment of how selected media covered the October 30 presidential by-election
4.9.2 Existence of an in – house policy for covering elections
4.9.3 Description of the electoral laws in Zambia
4.9.4 Impact of the actions of the electoral body on coverage of elections
4.9.5 Successes and Challenges of media coverage
4.9.6 Suggestions for media coverage of future elections
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMEDNDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
Appendix A Zambia Daily Mail: Summary of coverage
Appendix B The Post Newspaper: Summary of coverage
Appendix C The Times of Zambia: Summary of coverage
Appendix E Summary of coverage for all media houses
Appendix F Electoral Code of Conduct 2006
Appendix G ZNBC Guidelines and Principles for coverage of elections
List of tables
Table 1Distribution of stories covered by the Times of Zambia
Table 2Number of front page stories
Table 3Distribution of sources quoted in the election stories
Table 4Distribution of lead stories published
Table 5Distribution of pictures published
Table 6Number of stories about presidential candidates
Table 7Number of stories covered by the Daily Mail
Table 8Number of front page stories
Table 9Distribution of sources quoted in the election stories
Table 10Number of lead stories published
Table 11Number of pictures published
Table 12Number of stories about presidential candidates
Table 13Distribution of stories covered by the Post Newspaper
Table 14Number of front page stories
Table 15Distribution of sources quoted in the election stories
Table16Distribution of lead stories published
Table 17Number of pictures published
Table18Number of stories about presidential candidates
Table19Number of news items covered by ZNBC
Table 20Distribution of headline news stories aired by ZNBC
Table 21Distribution of sources of news quoted
Table 22Number of pictures aired by ZNBC
Table 23Number of stories about presidential candidates
Table 24Number of stories covered by the 4 media houses analysed
Table 25Number of sources quoted for election news stories in the 4 media houses
Table 26Distribution of the number of female sources quoted
Table 27Distribution of stories about presidential candidates
Table 28Number of lead stories in the print media
Table 29Distribution of front page stories published in the 3 newspapers
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
MMDMovement for Multiparty Democracy
PFPatriotic Front
HPHeritage Party
UPNDUnited Party for National Development
ZNBCZambia National Broadcasting Corporation
ECZElectoral Commission of Zambia
Brig. Gen.Brigadier General
KWICKey words in context
UNIPUnited National Independence Party
ZANISZambia News and Information Services
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE
1.0 Introduction
The mass media are essential to the conduct of democratic elections. A free and fair election is not only about casting a vote in proper conditions, but also about having adequate information about parties, policies, candidates and the election process. The coverage of the elections in the media and its analysis of candidate platforms and election issues provide voters with information they need to make an informed choice on the voting day.
Though the primary concern of election coverage is the right of voters to full and accurate information, parties and candidates are entitled to use themedia to get their messages across to the electorate. Thus the media have a duty to report freely and to scrutinise the whole election process without any bias.
This research is an attempt to do quantitative well as qualitative analyses of the media’s coverage of the campaign activities of political parties in the run up to the 30th October 2008 presidential by – election in Zambia. The study revealed that the coverage of elections was not fair, balanced, and objective and to some extent it was unethical. The coverage tended to favour some presidential candidates over the others and in some instances coverage tended to concentrate on tarnishing the image of certain candidates while attempting to promote others. Bias was clearly demonstrated quantitatively in that some political parties enjoyed massive and positive coverage while others were not given adequate coverage. The study also revealed that while some media houses granted coverage to certain candidates, the coverage was in most cases negative and bent on bringing shame on the candidates.
The issue of ownership also stood out most prominently as a hindrance to fair coverage of elections especially by the public media.
1.2 Background
The important role of the media in covering elections was brought to the fore following the demise of Zambia’s president His Excellency Levy Patrick Mwanawasa, SC on 19th August 2008. The president died in a ParisMilitaryHospital following a stroke that he suffered in Egypt during the African Union Heads of State Summit earlier in June 2008.
President Mwanawasa’s death necessitated a Presidential by-election, in accordance with Zambia’s constitution. According to the constitution, a Presidential by-election must take place within 90 days following the death of an incumbent President.
After the country mourned and interred the late president on the 3rd of September 2008 and following the end of the power struggle in the ruling party regarding the choice of the presidential candidate, the whole nation was gripped with the euphoria of the impending election. The media also rose to the occasion and reported the various aspects of the election process including the campaigns.
The role of the media in the coverage of elections in Zambia is recognised even in the statutory instruments. For instance, under statutory instrument No. 90 of 2006, the Electoral Code of Conduct Regulations makes specific reference to the duties of the media regarding the coverage of elections. Among other things, the media in Zambia are to provide fair and balanced reporting of the campaigns, policies, meetings, rallies and press conferences of all registered political parties and candidates during the period of campaigning. In addition, some media houses have policies to guide them in their coverage of elections. For example, the Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation even published in the press the guidelines and principles that would govern the corporation’s coverage of the October 30th presidential elections. The first guideline acknowledged the need to provide the electorate with accurate, fair, impartial and balanced information about the election procedures and the positions of political parties on issues.
1.3 Significance of the study
Parliamentary and presidential elections the world over attract massive media coverage by both local and international media practitioners. And consequently many researchers are keen to evaluate and analyse how the entire election process was managed including the media coverage accorded to the elections.
This study is significant in the sense that while previously the nation knew and therefore prepared for the elections to come this time around nobody anticipated that the country would have to hold presidential elections before the year 2011. Given this circumstance, it was then worthwhile to assess how the media performed in terms of the coverage of the whole electoral process especially the coverage accorded to the contesting parties’ campaign activities. The study also helps to show whether professionalism was maintained considering the uniqueness of the 2008 elections and all the emotions attached to them.
The other factor that made the study significant was that all contending parties had realised the importance of the media in disseminating their campaign messages owing to the short period that they had to carry out effective campaigns in all parts of the country. The media therefore were relied upon by all the political parties to convey their messages and such a situation would easily tempt journalists to compromise their objectivity.The study is also significant in the sense that the findings would help to improve media coverage of future elections. And assist MISA and other media organisations in coming up with strategies and activities to assist the media.
CHAPTER TWO: STUDY OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
2.0 General objective
The general objective of the study is to critically analyse how the media, both state and private, covered the run up to the 2008 presidential by-election in Zambia.
The specific objectives of the study are to:
(a)Evaluate how selected media houses in Zambia covered the October 2008 presidential by elections.
(b)Assess the level to which the media adhered to the provisions of the electoral code of conduct regulations.
(c)Determine the extent to which media organisations followed their policies regarding reporting of elections.
(d)Identify successes and challenges faced by the media during the coverage of the 2008 presidential elections.
2.1 Methodology
2.2 Research Design
A comparative, descriptive and analytical study was envisaged. This study employed a triangulated approach that was empirically based and used both qualitative and quantitative methods such as desk review and fieldwork. It employed specifically, content analysis of selected media institutions and personal interviews with editors of the institutions. The choice of content analysis was based on the understanding that the technique is objective, systematic and it had several advantages for this particular study. Hansen (1998. p. 91) noted that if you want to describe and analyse media content in a more comprehensive way, a way less prone to subjective selectiveness and idiosyncrasies, then you must employ a systematic method. Content analysis is such method for the systematic analysis of communications content. Content analysis was also supported by frame analysis which showed how aspects of the language and structure of news items emphasised certain aspects (and omitted others). The ‘content’ referred to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that could have been communicated. The ‘text’ was anything written, visual, or spoken that served as a medium for communication” (Neuman 1997).
Shoemaker and Reese (1996) noted that media content was characterised by a wide range of phenomena including the medium, production techniques, messages, sources quoted or referred to, and context, and they said that the task of content analysis was to impose some sort of order on these phenomena in order to grasp their meaning adding that part of the ordering process consisted of singling out the key features which were important and to which attention would be paid. Quantitative content analysis collects data about media content such as topics or issues, volume of mentions, ‘messages’ determined by key words in context (KWIC), circulation of the media (audience reach) and frequency. Neuendorf (2002) said that what is important isthat both content and form characteristics have to be considered in every content analysis conducted. Form characteristics are often extremely important mediators of the content elements.
The above-mentioned strengths of content analysis made it the best method for examining how the media in Zambia covered the 2008 elections. Suffice to note that not all aspects mentioned above were included for analysis but the valuables chosen were adequate for this study.
2.3 Definition of analytical categories
All news articles in the print media irrespective of size were regarded as adequate and sufficient indication of the type and extent of coverage in the three daily newspapers. Similarly for the broadcast media emphasis was placed on the news bulletin. Other dimensions of counting and analysis were based on themes such as frequency of coverage, placement of stories in the paper or in the bulletin, language used, sources quoted and gender dynamics. The study sought to analyse the following aspects:
- Overall media coverage of the Presidential by-election in terms of fairness, balance and objectivity
- Space and or airtime given to the contesting political parties on election stories, focusing on sources used or quoted and gender dimensions.
- The extent to which the electoral laws were adhered to in relation to what they provide for during elections and whether they were adequate or not.
- Determine the extent to which media houses adhered to the in – house guidelines for election coverage.
- Identify both successes and challenges (constraints) to the coverage of elections by the media in Zambia with a view to improving the coverage of future elections.
- Identify Government or electoral body actions that could have inhibited media coverage of the elections.
2.4 Sampling of the media and dates
The selection of media houses for the study was made with full knowledge of how the media in Zambia are divided. From the print media the Times of Zambia, the Zambia Daily Mail and the Post newspaper were selected because they are circulate to most parts of the country. In addition, these newspapers are published daily and this was significant for sampling purposes and for consistency in terms of data collection and analysis. However, for comparison and analysis purposes, it is important to note that two of these newspapers, the Times of Zambia and the Zambia Daily Mail are state owned publications whereas the Post Newspaper is a leading privately owned paper.
The selection of two state owned newspapers was equally strategic to facilitate analysis in terms of similarities and differences between two newspapers of similar nature. From the electronic media the selection of the Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation a state controlled station despite it being a public broadcaster was based on the fact that ZNBC (both radio and television) covers almost all the parts of the country.
Regarding the sampling period the study focused on the dates starting from the 8th to the 30th of October which was the actual polling day. Monday 8th October 2008 was specifically chosen because by then it was clear that Mr. Rupiah Banda had been selected as the presidential candidate for the ruling Movement for Multiparty Democracy. Prior to this date, much of the media coverage was on the funeral of the late president and the struggle in the ruling party concerning who would succeed the late President and become be the party’s presidential candidate. The study analysed media coverage of the campaign period on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays including Tuesday the 30th of October 2008.