Chapter 9: Group interviews
Introduction
Focus group interviews are a popular way of collecting qualitative data from a group of people in order to explore their perceptions, opinions, beliefs or attitudes. They differ from one-to-one discussions (as discussed in chapter 8) as the researcher asks questions in an interactive group setting whe.re participants respond by entering into group discussion with one another. This chapter looks first of all at the nature and possible uses of focus groups and considers how they differ from one-to-one interviews. The chapter also looks at the advantages and limitations of focus group interviews. The practical and ethical considerations that need to be made when designing and conducting focus group interviews will also be explored. These include how to decide on the sample, number, and size of the groups; deciding on the level of researcher involvement during the discussion; preparing the interview guide; recording and transcribing the data. The chapter will also consider the issue of group dynamics and the public versus private issue of group-based research.
What are focus groups?
Focus groups can often get a bad press – with commentators lamenting the modern culture of opinion gathering, especially in the domain of politics. Focus groups may or may not be an ideal tool as a form of political representation and participation in democratic life, but regardless, their function as go-betweens re citizenship and consumerism should not be confused with their role in educational and social research generally. Asking members of the public if a new washing machine is any good, or whether a state has too much immigration is a far cry from the role focus groups can play in carefully planned and thought out forms of research.
As Morgan (1997: 4) helpfully points out, focus groups have been a part of social research for quite some time, group interviews playing a notable part in applied social research programs during World War II, including ‘efforts to examine the persuasiveness of propaganda efforts and the effectiveness of training materials for the troops’. Morgan also helpfully goes some way to defining what a focus group is when he states that, with focus groups, it is the ‘researcher’s interest that proves the focus, whereas the data themselves come from the group interaction’ (Morgan, 1997: 6). Researcher use focus groups based on a desire to hone in on a specific issue, case, instance – like a micro-version of the case study approach (see chapter 3).
The use of focus groups:
Litosseliti (2003: 18) provides a concise a list as any of what focus groups are useful for (taken from a review of other work on the subject):
· Discovering new information (for example about a new product) and consolidating old knowledge (for example, examining people’s habits)
· Obtaining a number of different perspectives on the same topic, in participant’s own words
· Gaining information on participants’ views, attitudes, beliefs, responses, motivations and perceptions on a topic; ‘why’ people think or feel the way they do
· Examining participants shared understandings of everyday life and the everyday use of language and culture of particular groups
· Brainstorming and generating ideas, with participants discussing different angles of a problem, and possibly helping to identify solutions
· Gaining insights into the ways in which individuals are influenced by others in a group situation (group dynamics)
· Exploring controversial issues and complex or sensitive topics [emphasis in the original].
These are all excellent uses of focus groups, but it is important to highlight two other aspects that, more than others, make the focus group an attractive option for researchers: the fact that more data can be gathered in less time, compared to interviews, for example; and that the group aspect provides a potential basis for alternative viewpoints to be heard at the same time (more on these in the ‘advantages’ section).
Activity
Think of the uses of focus groups mentioned above – are you drawn to any of these in particular? For example, can you visualise the use of focus groups as a way of exploring some controversial issue in education? You may already have an idea in mind for your research and it could be the case that this approach provides a close fit to your research objectives – if so, write down why this might be the case: why would gathering people together in a group scenario work better than any alternative method?
Organisation of focus groups
When planning how to organise a focus group, the following should be thought through carefully:
Sample: Take care over your choice of focus group participants; for example, if your groups are designed to explore issues previously identified in a set of questionnaires, they should then as accurately as possible reflect the demographic make-up of your original sample (of course so long as you want your focus group to be representative). Variables such as gender, class and race should normally be taken into account, alongside any other specific variables of significance to the research project.
At the same time, you may wish to focus purely on those who made similar remarks in relation to a specific question (why did you want to go to university, for example). It may be the case that full representation proves impossible, given the lack of contact details/unwillingness to participate. This is not unusual, but what should be acknowledged are the limitations this places on the findings and analysis of your research.
Sample size: It is often tempting to include more people in a focus group, but care needs to be taken when compiling the size of the group – too many can often prove intimidating for the members, therefore reducing the chances that they will ‘open up’ and provide the kinds of data that you may be looking for. As moderator it is also more of a challenge for you to control the group and steer it to where you want it to go – people can sometimes treat focus groups as either some form of therapy or an opportunity to complain about whatever topic is under discussion. As Gibbs recommends (1997, 4), focus group size should be anywhere between six and ten participants.
How to conduct a focus group: It pays to think creatively when designing a focus group; such groups do not just have to take the format of question and response – there can be visual and aural elements as well, depending on the focus – this is particularly useful when working with children and when discussing more challenging issues relating to teaching performance (for example). Creative ways of conducting focus groups include:
· using artwork as a way of creating activities for people to collectively work together
· presenting readings or asking the group to deliver them
· use debating topics from recent newspaper articles
· the group could even be given assignments to complete before participation in the group.
So long as the group know what they are to expect from the group, the possibilities are multiple – so long as they are tailored to the aims of the research.
Don’t forget to: remember the names of participants. It is essential that a record be kept of the identity of each group participant. This information can easily get lost if names are not connected to voices during and immediately after the group. Also ensure that you have the individual’s demographic details. When recording the group, ensure that the microphone and recorder are positioned to capture the voices of all participants. It is also a good idea to use two devices to record. Name badges are also a useful idea - it might sound basic, but it will help you to recall who said what afterwards.
Advantages and disadvantages of Focus groups
Advantages
Data Capture: One of the obvious benefits of using focus groups is their capacity to gather together a large quantity of research data in a short period of time (Gibbs, 1997, 2). They are invaluable in this regard, as no other method can offer the same immediacy or the same ability to influence the data collection as it happens. Although full control of this process is out of the hands of the moderator, (see below), it is still the case that the focus group scenario allows the researcher the opportunity to query and hone in on particular aspects of the discussion, thereby making for a more effective ‘focus’ on the research topic.
Multiplicity of viewpoints: Questionnaires can provide multiple viewpoints, but never at one and the same time. One of the major advantages of focus groups is that several opinions can be voiced at the same time, publicly. This means that focus groups have the added value of generating discussion, while also encouraging participants to critically assess the veracity of their own viewpoints. It also means that the researcher is in a unique position to gauge the validity of numerous arguments and opinions, thereby allowing for some distance to be taken from the research focus. It may be the case that such a diversity of voices can result in an increase in complexity surrounding the focus of the research, but this is generally no bad thing.
Critical engagement: Focus groups have been known to provide the basis for more critical engagement with the topic at hand. And of course, this may prove highly beneficial in a sector as highly charged, politically and emotionally as education. As Kitzinger points out (1995: 300),
A method that facilitates the expression of criticism and the exploration of different types of solutions is invaluable if the aim of research is to improve services. Such a method is especially appropriate when working with particular disempowered patient populations who are often reluctant to give negative feedback or may feel that any problems result from their own inadequacies.
Disadvantages
Group bias: It can sometimes be the case that some participants can monopolise the discussion or be more dominant members of the group. This can result in the focus of the discussion shifting in their direction, meaning that the findings can be interpreted as skewed. This is a challenging scenario to manage and it is up to the researcher to negotiate this scenario. It is rare that you will get a group (in whatever situation) in which some members are not more vocal or dominant than others; although you want these individuals to present their opinions and experiences, there are just that: their personal opinions and experiences. In order for a focus group to be more than a glorified interview, its structure must allow for every other voice to be heard in the group. Otherwise you are missing a valuable opportunity to gather information.
This is another reason why you should take care over who you have in the group, especially when it comes to their shared characteristics or otherwise. As Gibbs (1997, 4) warns,
“if a group is too heterogenous, whether in terms of gender or class, or in terms of professional and ‘lay’ perspectives, the differences between participants can make a considerable impact on their contributions. Alternatively, if a group is homogenous with regards to specific characteristics, diverse opinions and experiences may not be revealed. Participants need to feel comfortable with each other.”
Loss of anonymity: It is also important to consider the ‘public’ nature of focus groups. Regardless of whether or not the participants know each other, the lack of anonymity in a focus group undoubtedly affects the behaviour and the attitudes of the participants towards the research process – a fact that could be considered one of the main drawbacks of this form of research. Care needs to be taken to steer the conversation away from conventional wisdom or opinions that are easily accepted by other members of the group. It should not be forgotten that people can be quite good at saying one thing, while thinking something entirely different. And the unfortunate truth is that, as the researcher, you may never be able to tell the difference. This is true also for individual interview scenarios, but arguably more the case for groups given their public nature.
Singularity: Another drawback of focus groups is their singular nature; if you find that for whatever reason you did not collect the data you wanted, it is very difficult to repeat the same focus group again – even if it were possible, participants would probably not take kindly to the extra work (the cost of organisation and participation in any case could act as a barrier). This is why it is vital that the design of the focus group is thought through with some care, especially concerning the kind s of outcomes you desire from the research. All too often, researchers can find that focus groups can run away with themselves leaving conversation or description in the place of decent research findings.
Examples of Focus Groups in educational research
Focus group example 1: E-learning and access to universitySource: Barraket, Jo. (2004) E-learning and access: getting behind the hype. In M. Osborne, J. Gallacher and B. Crossan (eds), Researching widening access to lifelong learning: Issues and approaches to international research, pp. 191-202. Abingdon, Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer.
Jo Barraket’s study is a report on a federally funded research programme in Australia, the objective of their research being ‘to investigate the access and equity issues associated with the increasing use of ICT in learning programmes” at the University of Technology in Sydney (UTS). A major topic in Australia and elsewhere, Barraket’s study looked to ‘identify differences in access to, and use of, ICT between students from government targeted equity groups and a control group’.
There were 2 phases to their research, and it was in the first phase that they conducted a series of focus groups, in which students from various equity groups. Student equity groups, as defined by the Australian Government, include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, students with a disability and several others - 27 students in total participated in the focus group phase. The information from the focus group study was used to ‘develop an effective survey instrument for phase two, and to provide a rich “snapshot” of information on the ICT experiences of a small number of students’. Phase 2 built on the findings of the focus groups and consisted of a detailed survey administered to students in 44 classes, which they received 1323 completed questionnaires for. The study overall allowed Barraket and her team them to conceptualise effective E-learning as ‘part of a broader strategy of access’.
Focus group example 2: Researching the impact of accountability in schools
Source: Murphy, Mark Paul Skillen (2013). The politics of school regulation: Using Habermas to research educational accountability. In M. Murphy (ed), Social theory and education research: understanding Foucault, Habermas, Bourdieu and Derrida, pp. 84-97. London: Routledge.
This second example took a different approach to the first, in that the focus groups formed the second phase of the research, having been built on the findings of an original set of interviews with teachers (as well as nurses and social workers) in the North of England. The aim of the research was to examine the impact of quality assurance on the work of professionals on the front line of public services. Specifically the researchers were interested in how mechanisms such as audit and inspection impacted on the relationships between the public and public sector professionals. The research focused on the ways in which teachers et al. perceived their work to be affected by the instrumental rationality at the heart of the new bureaucracy of quality assurance – a form of regulation that, at least in the UK, public-sector professionals are very familiar with.
In total, 9 interviews and 3 focus groups were carried out, equally split between the three professions. The focus groups were organised once relevant themes had been identified in the individual interviews. All interviews and focus groups were conducted in the same borough of the North-West of England. Given that three different professional groups were part of the study, it required different strategies to access the respondents. In order for access to be obtained to subjects that could provide adequate narratives around accountability and its consequences, more experienced personnel were requested to take part. Focus groups as a data collection exercise proved invaluable in the research, as they were the perfect route via which some of the key themes arising in the original interviews – time management, interaction with pupils, the role of legislation - could be explored in much greater depth.
Activity