Chapter 7TheDawnoftheTwentiethCentury
ChapterOverview
Chapter 7 covers the social, economic, andpoliticalchanges that occurred as Mississippi entered a new century.In1890, Mississippians included a disfranchisementprovisioninto their state constitution for the purpose of returning thestate to "white supremacy" leadership. Mississippi voterswererequiredtopaya$2polltaxandtobeabletoreadandinter-pret a section of theconstitution.
Regardless of the motivation for segregation in 1890,itbecame a legal matter. There were very strict proceduresfol-lowed in the everyday life of the races. Even the structure oftheeconomicsystemofMississippilentitselfwelltohelpingkeepblacks"intheirplaces."Sharecroppingboundthemintoanewtype ofservitude.
Mississippi also entered an era of industrialdevelop-ment.Thelumberindustrydevelopedduetothestate'sabun-dance of white pines and the construction of new railroads.
Many of the sawmills built their own rail lines. Soon townsandcities developed along the railways and around the lumbermills.Asaresult,Mississippirankedasthethirdlargestlumberproducer in the nation until the 1920s.
James K. Vardaman was the first governor of the statetobe elected under the primary system. He was a progressivewhoadvocatedtheregulationofbigbusinessandopposedthecon-vict lease system. He was also a strong advocate forlawsrestricting child labor. He was a segregationist, whostressededucationforthewhitesbutopposededucationfortheblacks.Hepersuadedthelegislaturetoappropriatemoniesforschools,and he established the textbookcommission.
Because of the boll weevil and other numeroushard-shipsofthefarmers,anewpoliticalpartyarose.ThePeople'sparty (Populist party) supported a platform of reforms thatincluded the demand for silver-backed money, lower tariffs,thedirect election of U.S. senators, regulation of railroads, andagraduated income tax. When the Democrats raised the issuethatthePopulistswantedtorestoreblacks'politicalpower,thiscampaign propaganda destroyed the Populistparty.
After the defeat of the Populists, the government inMis-sissippi entered a period of corruption and politicalbosses.
Political power was based upon patronage and the goal ofwin-ning and staying in office. This practice continued until theadoption of the primary and Vardaman's reelection.
ChapterOutline
SegregationEducationAgriculture
The SharecroppingSystemDeltaPlanters
AgriculturalProblemsLumberIndustry
ThePopulistRevolt
The Problems of theFarmersThe People'sParty
PoliticalBossesandCorruption
The Push for PrimaryElections
ThePopulistDemocratsTakeControlA ProgressiveMovement
The SecretCaucusThe Election of1911
Spotlight:TheodoreRooseveltandthe"TeddyBear"FocusonAmericanHistory:DeltaChinese
FocusonAmericanHistory:TheUnitedStatesandWorldWarI
ChapterTerms
Note: These terms are listed in the order they arepre-sented in thechapter.
segregation-separationoftheraces
lynching - mob murder by hanging, shooting, or burningcredit - the ability to buy something now and pay for itlatersharecropper - a person who did not own the land hefarmed,the house he lived in, and often the tools he used
boll weevil - a small beetle that attacks the bolls, where thecot-ton fibers areformed
goldstandard-amonetarypolicywherebythedollarwascon-vertibleinto(orbackedby)goldonly
Populists - a political party made up mainly of farmerswhowanted tariff reform, a graduated income tax, regulation ofrail-roads, the use of silver money, and the direct election ofU.S.senators
patronage - appointing people to government positions asareward for politicalsupport
primary - a qualifying election in which all of the party'smem-bers vote for the candidates of theirchoice
progressivemovement-amovementthatbelievedgovernmentwas best equipped to correct the ills ofsociety
lobbyist-apersonpaidtorepresenttheinterestsofacompanyorspecialgroup
Materials
Textbook-Chapter7,pages154-179BlacklineMasters
Know theTermsKnow theFacts
The Boll WeevilQuizLocation
Understanding theFactsReadingComprehensionReadingReview
In-depth Search of Chapter7
The Dawn of the TwentiethCenturyTestingYourKnowledge
Objectives
When the students have completed study of thischapterand its accompanying activities, they will be able to(Note:ApplicableMississippiStudiescompetenciesarelistedinparen-theses after theobjective.)
•identify the Constitution of 1890 as the instrument bywhich"whitesupremacy"wasrestoredinMississippi.(1)
•discusstheeffectsofsegregationuponlifeinMississippiat the beginning of the new century.(3)
•explain how the sharecropping system operated.(1)
•list the major problems faced by Mississippi farmersatthe turn of the century.(1)
•discussthedevelopmentandproblemsofthelumberindustry in Mississippi in the 1900s.(2)
•explainwhypubliceducationwasslowtodevelopinMississippi.(3)
•explainwhyfarmerswereopposedtothegoldstandard.(1)
•explainthemainreformsthatthePopulistpartysoughtto bring about in the state and nation.(1)
•explain why the Populist party failed.(1)
•discuss how Anselm McLaurin's election depictedtherise of political bosses and corruption in state politics.(1)
•clarifywhyprimaryelectionsaroseinMississippiinthelate 1800s.(1)
•enumerate the major accomplishments of GovernorA.H.Longino.(1)
•explainwhyJamesVardamanwaspopularwiththepoorwhites of Mississippi.(1)
•expounduponhowsomeofVardaman'spoliticalideaswere progressive in nature.(3)
•explain why the secret caucus of 1909 was heldandstate its results.(3)
•explain the significance of the election of 1911in
Mississippi.(1)
•listtheaccomplishmentsofGovernorTheodoreG.Bilbo.(3)
•describetheroleMississippiansplayedinWorldWarI.(1)
Procedures
IntroducingtheChapter
Introducethechapterwithareadingof"OldLem"fromSterlingA.Brown,BuildingtheBlackAestheticTradition:
We raise dewheatDey gib us thecorn;We bake debread,Dey gib us decrust;We sif demeal,
Dey gib us dehuss;We peel demeat,Dey gib us deskin;And dat's thewayDey take usin;
We skim depot,Dey gib us de liquor
And say dat's good enough for then-----.
Asthepoemisbeingread,have"SwingLow,SweetChar-iot"softlyplayinginthebackgroundtosetthemoodforthepoem.
Point out that Brown uses the tension between "we"and"they"torefertotheblacks'disfranchisementandthewhites'empowerment. He uses the first two lines in each stanza totalkaboutthewhitefolksandfollowsitbytwolinesabouttheoppressedblacks.
A continuation of “OldLem”:
They weigh thecottonThey store thecornWe only goodenoughTo work therows;
TheyrunthecommissaryThey keep thebooksWe gotta begratefulFor beingcheated;
WhippersnapperclerksCall us out of ournameWe got to saymister To spindling boys
They make ourfiggersTurnsomersets
We buck in themiddleSay, "Thank yuh, sah."
In this excerpt, Brown contrasts what the whites dotowhat is forced upon the blacks to accept. Brown, a black Har-vard graduate,wasanoutstandingliteraryfigurewhousedblackspeechordialectasamediumbywhichtoconveythehumanity of his race. (Before reading these excerpts totheclass, set the background for "Old Lem" and tell themaboutSterlingA.Brown.DisplayapictureofBrownalongwithashort biography of his life. Construct a display of picturesfromthe era of the sharecropper. The Library of Congress has awon-derful pictorial dossier of thisperiod.)
Besensitiveinthepresentationofthismaterial.Thispoemisagreatwaytointroducethelifeoftheblackshare-cropper,butnotallsharecropperswereblack.Manypoorwhitesfoundthemselvesatthemercyofwealthierwhitemen.
SuggestedTeachingStrategies
•Lecture
•Cooperativelearning
•Individualresearch
•Fieldtrips
•Fine arts/literatureconnection
Suggested StudentActivities
•Afterreading"OldLem,"discussthelifeofasharecrop-per.Pointoutthatover60percentofMississippi'sfarmfamilies were sharecroppers. Brainstorm the reasonsforsuch a huge number of people falling into thiscategory.Why was it almost impossible for a sharecropper toprosper? (Website containssomeinteresting stories of the sharecroppingera.)
•Discuss the Delta planter's attempt at finding replace-ment laborers after the Civil War. Discuss whyrecruitingChinese and Italian laborers did not work.
•Displayapictureofabollweevil.Giveeachstudentacopyofthesong,"TheBollWeevil"fromAmericanBallads and Folk Songs,Lomax.
The BollWeevil
Oh, have you heard de lates,De lates' of desongs?
It's about dem little BollWeevils,Dey's picked up bofe feet an' gone
A-looking for ahome,Jes a-looking' for ahome.
De Boll Weevill is a littlebugF'um Mexico, deysay,
He come to try dis TexassoilEn thought he better stay,
De n----- say to de BollWeevil"What makes yo' head so red?"
"I's been wanderin de whole worl'ovahTill it's a wonder I ain't dead.
First time I saw Mr. BollWeevil,He wuz on de westernplain;Nex time I sawhim,
He wuz ridin' on a Memphis train
De nex' time I saw him,
He was runnin' a spinnin'wheel;De nex' time I sawhim,
He wuz ridin’ in an automobile
De fus’ time I saw de BollWeevilHe wuz settin’ on de square,
The nex’ time I saw de BollWeevilHe had all his family dere
Then the Farmer gotangry,Sent him up in aballoon;“Good-by, Mr.Farmer:
I’ll see you again nextJune.”
De Farmer took de BollWeevilAn’ buried him in hot san’;
De Boll Weevil say to deFarmer“I’ll stan’ it like a man.”
Den de Farmer took de BollWeevilAn’ lef’ him on de ice;
Says de Boll Weevil to defarmer,“Dis is mighty cool an’nice.”
Mr. Farmer took littleWeevilAnd put him in ParisGreen;“Thank you, Mr.Farmer,
It’s the best I ever seen.”
Den de Farmer say to deMerchant:“We’s in an awfulfix;
DeBollWeevil’setalldecottonupAn’ lef’ us onlysticks.”
Den de Merchant say to deFarmer,“Whut do you tink o’ dat?
Ef you kin kill de Boll Weevil
I’ll give you a bran-new Stetson hat.”
Oh, de Farmer say to deMerchant,“I ain’tmade but only one bale,An’ befo’ I bring yo’ dat one
I’ll fight an’ go to jail.”
De Sharpshooter say to de BollWeevil,“What you doin’ in dis square?”
An’ the Boll Weevil say to deSharpshooter,“I’se makin’ my home inhere.”
Oh, de Boll Weevil say to theDutchman,“Jes’ poison me ef yo’dare,
An’ when yo’ come to make yo’cropI’ll punch out everysquare.”
De Boll Weevil say to deFarmer,“You better lemmealone,I’ve et up all yo’ cotton
An’ now I’ll begin on de co’n.”
Boll Weevil say to deDoctor,“Better po’ out all yo’ pills,
When I git through wid deFarmer,He cain’t pay no doctor’s bills.”
Boll Weevil say to dePreacher,“You better close yo’ churchdo’WhenIgitthroughwiddeFarmer,He cain’t pay de Preacher nomo’.”
De Merchant got half decotton,De Boll Weevil got deres’Didn’t leave de n-----’swifeBut one old cotton dress.(and it’s full of holes, etc. )
Rubber-tiredbuggy,Decoratedhack,
Took dem Boll Weevils to degraveyard,
An’ ain’t goin’ bring ‘emback.
Ef anybody axesyouWho wuz it writ dissong,
Tell’em ‘twuz a dark-skinnedn-----Wid a pair o’ blue ducking on,
A-lookin’forahome.
A- lookin’ for ahome,Jes a lookin’ for ahome.
(YoumaysubstituteBrookBenton’s1961versionof“TheBollWeevil Song.” The version shown above came from theperiodof history covered in this unit.) After the students read orlistento the song, have them complete the worksheet, The BollWeevilQuiz.
•DisplayacopyoftheMississippiConstitutionof1890.Discusshowitbecametheinstrumentbywhich“whitesupremacy” was restored in Mississippi. Identify it asthebeginning of the “era of Jim Crow laws.” Tell studentstheorigin of the name “Jim Crow”: In the mid-1800sfourwhite men from Virginia covered their faces in blackcork and imitated black singing and dancing. Theywereso popular that soon individuals began to try to copytheir act. The most outstanding solo performer wasThomas Dartmouth “Daddy” Rice. Rice, a whiteactor,had watched an elderly black man dance and sing alittlejingle: “Weel about and turn about and do jis so,Eb’rytimeIweelaboutIjumpJimCrow.”Severalhistorianstend to believe that Jim Crow was the owner of theblackman from whom Rice copied his act. Regardless ofwhoCrow was, the term Jim Crow became synonymouswiththe belief of blackinferiority.
•DiscusstheeffectsofsegregationuponlifeinMississippiatthebeginningofthenewcentury.Havestudentsdis-cusshowtheyfeelwhenpeopleoverlookthemorshunthem. How would they have felt if they had had toabideby the segregation caste system?
•Discuss the development of the lumber industry.Displaypictures of old lumber mills and towns of the period.Writethechambersofcommerceofsomeoftheseoldtowns and acquire information about the old mills. Ifyour school is located near a major lumber industry,invite one of its officials to speak on the developmentofthe industry inMississippi.
•GiveeachstudentamapofMississippi.Havethemlocate the Hills, the Delta, and the PineyWoods.
•Pointoutthatrailroadsexpandedbecauseofthelumberindustry and because of subsidies and taxexemptions.
The most outstanding railroad figure in Mississippidur-ing this era was Henry McComb, who startedtheChicago,St.Louis,andNewOrleansRailroad,whichlaterbecamepartoftheIllinoisCentralRailroad.Haveone student research the life of Henry McCombandreporthisorherfindingstotheclass.Lettheotherstu-dentstrytolocateoldlumberrailroadsthatexistedinthestate.Seehowmanynamesoftheseoldrailroadsthey can locate. Let them share their findings,tellingwheretherailroadwaslocatedandhowitreceiveditsname.
•Let students research education in Mississippi at theturnof the century. Brainstorm why there was a lack ofinter-est in education during this period. Why was theMississippieducationalsystemof1900unfair?Whydidthe Mississippi Delta have the best schools in the stateatthistime?Whatimprovementsweremadeineducationjust before the outbreak of World WarI?
•Have students characterize the political scene inMississippiintheearly1900s.Brainstormthefollowing:WhoranthegovernmentofMississippibeforetheCivilWar? Who ran the government duringReconstruction?Whatwerethemainpoliticaldemandsofpeopleofthestateintheearly1900s?Whydidthesedemandsexist?Why did the farmers of the state organize? What wastheMississippiFarmers’Alliance?WhowasFrankBurkitt?WhydidBurkittformtheMississippiPeople’sparty?What did the Populist party stand for? Whateventuallydestroyed the Populist party in Mississippi? Why didthepoorwhiteswanttoeliminatetheconventionmethodofchoosing candidates? In the November generalelections,why did the Democratic nominee alwayswin?
•Divide the class into four groups and assign eachgroupone of the following individuals to research: AnselmJ.McLaurin,A.H.Longino,JamesK.Vardaman,andTheodoreG.Bilbo.Havestudentsusetheirowncreativi-tytopresentacharacterizationoftheindividual,point-ing out achievements and failures in that person’spubliclife.
•Discuss“TheRedneckEraofPoliticsinMississippi:1903-1923.”Identifyitastheeraofthecommonwhitefolks in Mississippi. Identify Vardaman as thechampionof the Redneck Era. Tell why he was popularamongpoor whites. Explain why he is sometimes referred toasa “progressive.”
•Have students trace Bilbo’s political career. WouldtheyclassifyBilboasasuccessorfailureasapolitician?Havethem justify theiranswers.
•Have students research Mississippi’s role in World WarI.
Ask students to find out if they had a relative whofoughtinWorldWarI.Ifso,inwhatdivisiondidheserve?
Where did he fight? Are there any stories about his daysincombat?Letthestudentssharethisinformationwiththeclass.
•Plan a field trip to the Armed Forces Museum atCampShelby. Here, students would be able to witness arealis-tic experience of trench warfare as it was in World WarI.This experience would include life-sizedoughboys,machine-gunfire,andotherbitsof“realism.” Studentswould be able to browse thousands of pictures andobservenumerousweaponsfromthiswar.ThemuseumisopenTuesdaythrough Saturdayfrom9until4:30.Studentsandparentsmustbenotifiedthatallvisitorstothe museum must submit to a security search beforeentering Camp Shelby. This requirement isgovernmentregulation.
•Have students complete the worksheets, The Dawn oftheTwentiethCenturyandIn-depthSearchofChapter7.
•Discuss President Theodore Roosevelt’s visittoMississippi.IdentifyOnward,Mississippi,asthelocationwherethepresidentrefusedtoshoottherestrainedbearthat Holt Collier had tied up for him. If time allows,takea field trip to Onward and visit the Onward Store,whichspecializes in memorabilia of this event. LocateOnwardon amap.
•Have the students complete theworksheet,
Understanding theFacts.
TextbookAnswers
MapSkills
Map32,Page160:Northwest
Map 33, Page 162: Students’ answers will vary.
It’s Your Turn, Page164
1.Blackspresentedanoutwardappearanceofacceptancetowhitesbutresistedasmuchaspossibleandledsepa-rateliveswiththeirownshops,churches,doctors,andentertainment.
2.Thelandownersandstoreownersworkedthesystemtoensuretheirownprofitsthroughhighpricesandinterestrates and outright cheating. Planters discouraged gar-dens and other crop diversification that might havehelped sharecroppers, and the price of cotton was toolowtoproducemuchprofit.Fewsharecropperscouldread or write so the planters and/or storeowners couldeasily cheat them.
3.Delta farmers first recruited Chinese immigrantsandthen later recruited Italian immigrants to work onplan-tations in the 1900s.
It’s Your Turn, Page167
1.Farmers suffered from falling cotton prices, hightariffs,and the gold standard that restricted the moneysupply.
2.BurkittlefttheDemocratstoformtheMississippiPeople’sparty.
3.Democrats raised the race issue claiming thePopulistswanted to restore blacks’ politicalrights.
It’s Your Turn, Page170
1.Poorwhiteswantedtoeliminatetheconventionsystembecause it was controlled by political bosses whorepre-sented the economic elite who benefited by keepingsharecroppersandotherpoorwhitesoutofpower.Poorwhites wanted a whites-only “democracy” thatwouldelect a candidate to represent their economicinterests.
2.TheDemocratsalwayswonNovembergeneralelectionsbecausetheRepublicanandPopulistpartiesofferedverylit-tleopposition.TheDemocratsconvincedthemajorityofwhites that only the Democrats could protectsegregation.
3.Vardaman’s populism, showmanship, and racism wontheirvotes.Hedefendedpoorwhitepeopleagainstbigbusinessanddirectedhiscampaigntowardthem,claim-ingtobeoneoftheirown.Hewasashowmanwhodressedandspokeinamannerthatattractedattentionandgavepoorwhitestheimpressionthathewasoneofthem. He also included racism as part of hiscampaign.
It’s Your Turn, Page176
1.Vardaman found it impossible to help poor whiteswith-out also improving life for the black majority. Mostofthe prisoners who benefited from his reforms wereblack. Most of the consumers who paid lowerpricesbecause of the regulation of big business were black.Heinsistedonkeepinglawandorder,whichhelpedtopre-vent the lynching of black prisoners.
2.When Senator McLaurin died in 1909, thelegislaturehadtochoosesomeonetocompletehisterm.Vardamanran against LeRoy Percy, a planter and aristocrat.Thelegislature decided that the vote for senator would betaken in a secret caucus ofDemocrats.
3.Bilbo did his best to make government work better.Hehelped the legislature create a state taxcommission,
equalizepropertytaxassessments,establishaboardofbank examiners, build a highway commission, anddevelop a pardon board. He also founded atuberculosishospital, a charity hospital, and a training school fordelinquents.Hepassedacompulsoryschoolattendancelaw and an antilobbylaw.
Chapter Review, Pages178-179
Reviewing People andTerms
1.TheodoreG.Bilbo—servedasastatesenator,lieutenantgovernor, andgovernor
2.boll weevil — a small beetle that attacks the boll,wherethe cotton fibers areformed
3.FrankBurkitt—ledtheMississippiFarmers’Allianceand left the Democrats to form the MississippiPeople’sparty
4.credit — the ability to buy something now and pay foritlater
5.goldstandard—thefinancialstandardthatmeantthatthe dollar was convertible into (or backed by) goldonly
6.lobbyist — a person paid to represent the interests ofacompany or specialgroup
7.lynching — mob murder by hanging, shooting, orburn-ing
8.patronage — appointing people to governmentpositionsas rewards for politicalsupport
9.Populists — members of the People’s party, whichwasformedin1891,whotriedtousestategovernmenttobetter their constituents’ lives
10.primary — an election to nominate candidates forofficein which all of a political party’s members vote forthecandidates of theirchoice
11.progressivemovement—amovementthatbelievedgov-ernment was best equipped to correct the ills ofsociety
12.sharecropper—apersonwhodidnotownthelandhefarmed,thehousehelivedin,oroftenthetoolsheused
13.segregation — separation of theraces
14.JamesK.Vardaman—ranforandwaselectedgovernorin 1903 on the Populistticket
Understanding theFacts
1.They used the fear of losing control to the blackmajorityto manipulate the white-minority population to keepgovernment in theirhands.
2.A portion of school funding came from the poll tax.Thestateallocatedthemoneytocountiesbasedonthenum-ber of school-aged children. The whites in the blackcounties took advantage of this. Theblack-majority
countiesspentthemoneytopayforbetterschoolsforwhite students and ignored blackstudents.
3.PlantersfoundthattheycouldnottreattheChineseorItalians as they did blacks. The Chinese escapedthefields to open stores and small businesses. TheItaliansrefused to accept the system designed by the plantersandstoreownerstokeepthesharecroppersinservitude.Theyrefused toallow planterstoselltheircottonbecausetheycouldkeepmoreoftheprofitbysellingitthemselves. Italians protested the treatment to theirgov-ernment,whichleadtoinvestigationsbythepressandthe U.S. Department ofJustice.
4.Cotton production suffered from topsoil erosion,lowprices, and the boll weevilinvasions.
5.The lumber companies clear-cut the entire state andfailed to replant the trees. The forests vanished, andthecompanies took their profits and left thestate.
6.The People’s party represented small farmers andshare-croppers.
7.Themajorityofthestate’s population wasblack,butblacks were excluded from voting or holdingoffice.Whitesintheblackcountiesformedsmallgroupswhoexercisedpowerovertheblackpopulation.Theyusedthe fear of losing control to the black majority tomanip-ulatethewhite-minoritypopulationtokeepgovernmentin their hands.
8.Bilbo appealed to the majority of voters becausetheywerewhiteandpoor,andhepromisedtorepresenttheirinterests. Though mostly uneducated, poor whitesrecog-nizedthattheelitedidnotsharetheirinterestinabettereducation forallwhitesandinrestrictions of big busi-ness. Bilbo acted outrageously to prove that hesympa-thizedwiththepooranduneducated.Heusedprofanityandcommonlanguagetoemphasizethathewasoneofthem, and he wore a red tie to show he liked beingcalledaredneck.HeunderstoodandlikedtheaverageMississippian, and they returned thesentiment.
DevelopingCriticalThinking
1.White Mississippians were a minority in thestate’spopulation;theyfearedthatblackswouldoppressthemifgiventheopportunity.Reconstructiongovernmentinwhichblacksparticipatedfrightenedwhitesbecauseitdemanded they give blacks equal treatment.Havingregained control of the government, whites set out todemonstratethroughtheirsocial,economic,andpoliti-calsystems that theywouldretain controloverblacks;and they used segregation to accomplish thisgoal.
2.Democracy means the rule of the majority of thepeople.
FromitsoriginsinNatchez,Mississippiwasalwaysrunbytheplanterelite.Slavesmadeupamajorityofthepopulation,buttheywerenotallowedtovoteorpartici-pate in government. The Reconstruction governmentcame closest to democracy when blacks were allowedtovote,butcorruptionandfraudpreventedfulldemocracy.Whites took control again through violence and fraudand excluded the blackmajority.
3.Holding the majority of the population insegregationrequired the white minority to limit opportunities foreveryone. The small group of insiders benefitedeconom-icallyfromtheoppressionofblacksandwhitesasthesharecropping system impoverished the agriculturaleconomy. Blacks were prevented from obtaining anedu-cation,andtheresultinglowtaxbasedidnotprovideanadequate educational system for whites so that humanpotential was lost. Politics was always about race sothatpeoplecouldnotusetheirgovernmenttosolveeconom-ic problems.
Examining SpecialFeatures
1.Thecartoonistdepictedacubratherthana250-poundbear and showed a white man holding it rather thanCollier, the blackman.
2.He was tried for murdering a Union officer duringthewar.
3.1914
4.The Lusitania.
5.The Chinese got special permission to attendwhiteschools or they developed their ownschools.
6.They segregated themselves and held to theirtraditionalassumptionthattheirculturewassuperiortoanyother.They refused to be “lumped” in with theblacks.
Exploring theInternet
1.Students’ answers willvary.
2.Students’ answers willvary.
Writing Across theCurriculum