DRA - 2
CHAPTER 4: DIAGNOSTIC READING ASSESSMENTS
Sunday, 7.27.2014 –11:26 a.m.
A pig doesn’t get any heavier by weighing it. A house doesn’t get any warmer by adding thermostats.
As the farmer once said, “The pig don’t get any heavier by weighing it.” Meaning that, in education in general, and special education in particular, there tends to be too much emphasis on assessment and not enough emphasis on teaching.
*[Andy note, 7.27.14 -- I’d like to create a DRA with graded word lists and leveled reading passages on a website for use with this chapter.-7.26.2014-]
DIAGNOSING THE PROBLEM
Here’s the problem: You’ve got a student named Billy who is struggling to learn to read. You look at his IEP and it tells you that Billy can’t read. On his IEP you see bunch of numbers from standardized tests. These numbers show you how much Billy can’t read in comparison to everybody else. Percentages and percentile rankings are used to describe Billy in terms of his distance from average. But then what? Billy still can’t read. You still don’t know why Billy can’t read and you don’t know what specifically you should do about it. Percentile rankings and standardized test scores won’t give you this type of information.
Limitations of Standardized Tests
There’s nothing inherently wrong with standardized tests. They are one of many types of tools that can be useful in helping struggling readers; however, with any tool, you must recognize the limitations. For reading, most standardized tests are insufficient for (a) diagnosing the possible cause of a reading disability, (b) identifying student strengths as well as specific areas for remediation, and (c) informing your planning and instruction. To do this, you need another type of tool. I recommend some form of a Diagnostic Reading Assessment (DRA).
Diagnostic Reading Assessments
A common term for Diagnostic Reading Assessments (DRA) is an Informal Reading Inventory (IRI). However, the term, ‘Informal Reading Assessment’ may imply to some that it is haphazard or that it is somehow less valuable than other “formal” types of measures. In the hands of a knowledgeable teacher, a DRA provides valuable data than cannot be obtained on standardized tests. Thus, I prefer the term, Diagnostic Reading Assessment. With the DRA, the examiner is not simply following a formula and list of sequential steps. Instead, the knowledge and experience of the examiner becomes an integral part of the assessment (cite).
Figure 4.1 contains a list of common commercially-prepared DRA’s. The information in this chapter will enable you to use any of these. I will also show you how to design and implement your own DRA’s.
Figure 4.1. Common Diagnostic Reading Assessments
• Qualitative Reading Inventory, 5th edition, (Leslie and Caldwell)• Reading Inventory for the Classrooms,5th edition, (Flynt and Cooter)
• Classroom Reading Inventory, 12th edition, (Silvaroli and Wheelock)
• Basic Reading Inventory, 10th edition, (Johns)
• Analytical Reading Inventory, 9th edition, (Woods and Moe)
• Ekwall/Shanker Reading Inventory, 6th edition, (Shanker and Ekwall)
• Informal Reading Inventory, 8th edition, (Roe and Burns)
The DRA is used to determine students’ approximate independent and instructional reading levels (see Figure 4.2), as well as their strengths and deficit areas related to word identification, fluency, and/or comprehension. The basic elements include (a) graded word lists, (b) graded reading passages, and (c) comprehension questions or a maze. Each of these is described below.
Figure 4.2. Independent, instructional, and frustration levels.
• Independent level.At this level students can read unassisted.They are generally able to identify 98% or more of the words. Comprehension scores are 90% or higher. When students read independently for pleasure, you want them to be reading at this level or BELOW.• Instructional level.At this level students can read with some assistance.They are generally able to identify 90-97% of these words. Comprehension scores are between 75% and 89%. This is the level of reading material that should be used for reading instruction. Here you will need to provide some assistance such as a story map, vocabulary help, scaffolded oral reading, or a story preview.
• Frustration level.At this level students cannot be successful even with a lot of the teacher’s help.They are able to identify 89% or less of these words. Comprehension scores are less than 75%. Avoid any type of reading at this level.Challenging students with frustration level material will NOT help them progress faster. Reading at this level results only in frustrated students who learn that they can’t learn to read and that they don’t like reading.
GRADED WORD LISTS
Graded word lists provide a very general estimation of students’ reading grade level. These are used to inform the next part of the DRA. An example of graded word lists can be found in Figure 4.3. As well, graded word lists are included in Appendix A.
Figure 4.3. Graded word lists for Primer through Grade 4.
Primer1. was
2. could
3. children
4. know
5. what
6. saw
7. around
8. mother
9. now
10. old
11. fly
12. very
13. have
14. into
15. yellow
16. tree
17. what
18. about
19. went
20. cake
21. all
22. way
23. hold
24. your
25. over / First Grade
1. please
2. flower
3. snowman
4. brown
5. children
6. father
7. drop
8. birthday
9. men
10. kind
11. story
12. cry
13. tell
14. street
15. buy
16. why
17. rabbit
18. ball
19. walk
20. paint
21. behind
22. give
23. her
24. again
25. laugh / Second Grade
1. beautiful
2. everyone
3. should
4. write
5. sorry
6. people
7. instead
8. breakfast
9. cupcake
10. eyes
11. love
12. reach
13. people
14. save
15. strong
16. carry
17. first
18. together
19. friend
20. present*
21. write
22. hurt
23. fall
24. until
25. does / Third Grade
1. magic
2. beginning
3. thankful
4. crawl
5. museum
6. reason
7. bush
8. planet
9. discover
10. enough
11. precious
12. fright
13. honor
14. several
15. unusual
16. hour
17. escape
18. wiggle
19. soup
20. enemy
21. either
22. remember
23. matter
24. inventor
25. diamond / Fourth Grade
1. predict
2. knowledge
3. canoe
4. vicious
5. decorate
6. windshield
7. parachute
8. official
9. dignity
10. island
11. dozen
12. exercise
13. bound
14. machine
15. experience
16. motion
17. coward
18. servants
19. legend
20. force
21. nephew
22. barrel
23. weather
24. ghost
25. weight
Independent / Instructional / Frustration
25, 24, 23 / 22, 21, 20, 19 / 18 or less
These are the steps for using graded word lists:
1. Record each session with an audio recorder. Start by having students say their name, age, and grade level. This will enable you to identify the correct recording when you go back to analyze it.
2. Start below students’ estimated reading grade level.
3. Ask the student to read the word list out loud. Have a duplicate list in front of you to keep track of the words correctly identified. Put a ‘+’ next to words correctly identified and a ‘0’ next to those words that are not correctly identified. [sample?]
4. After completing the list check the number of errors. Keep moving up until you reach the student’s instructional level. The number of words correctly identified for each level is shown in Figure 4.3.
5. Based on the information from these word lists, select a graded reading passage that is at the student’s independent reading level for the graded reading passage. This is the next part of the DRA.
6. When you have completed the other parts of the DRA, go back and analyze the audio recording of these graded word lists. Start by analyzing the misidentified words. Write down exactly what the student said next to the target word. Then record your observations in regards to how the student identified the word. How did he or she say the word? Did the student recognize the word instantly? Did the student sound out each letter? Did the student recognize word parts? Did the student quickly guess? Did the student self-correct? Were there patterns of words miscued? Record your observations directly on the word list. Your observations and analysis provide valuable information for your diagnostic assessment.
GRADED READING PASSAGES
Graded reading passages are texts that have been normed for a particular grade level. This means that the average student at a particular grade level could read the passage independently. For example, RL3 (reading level 3) means that 50% or more of all third grade students could read that passage at the independent level. Sometimes graded readers are broken down further by month. RL 3.2 means reading level, 3rd grade, 2nd month.
The commercially prepared DRAs listed in Figure 4.1 have graded reading passages included. However, you can prepare your own DRA by using basal readers that have been normed for a particular level or children’s books. On the back of most children’s books you will see RL followed by a number. This indicates the approximate reading grade level.
These are the steps for using the graded reading passages:
1. Just like the words lists, record each session with an audio recorder. Start recording at the beginning of each graded passage. Record each section of the DRA individually because you will often need to listen to individual passages or word lists more than once. Recording each element separately enables you to move quickly back and forth between elements.
2. Give students a copy of a graded passage that is at their independent reading level based on the graded word lists above. Provide the title of the passage and then ask them to read it out loud. Tell them also that they may know some words but not others. Provide help or hints only when absolutely necessary. Give students plenty of space to self-correct words and sentences but use your teacher sense to avoid frustrating them. Remember, the purpose here is to collect data. Frustrating students will affect the quantity and quality of the data you get.
3. Have copy of what students are reading in front of you. As they read, put a line through the miscued words. A miscue is when what the student says does not match what is on the page (see Figure 4.7). Also, make quick notes of some of your initial impressions in the margins as the student is reading. Focus on things such as facial expression, body language, general confidence, and word identification strategies used. Note anything that stands out here. This is all important data that will help you understand each reader. But do not try to write too much here. You will be going back later to listen to the audio recording in order to engage in a more thorough and precise analysis.
4. Most commercially prepared DRAs have five or six comprehension questions followed by a scoring guide (Figure 4.4). After reading the passage orally ask these questions and record students’ responses. Note that the comprehension part of the DRA is optional. If you are creating your own DRA and you want to assess comprehension, use a story re-telling rubric (see Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.4. Example of a scoring guided for comprehension questions.
COMPREHENSION# correct / Level
5½ to 6 / Independent
4½ to 5 / Instructional
4 or less / Frustration
5. If students are able to identify 98% of the words or more (independent reading level), move up to the next reading level passage. Commercially prepared DRAs will indicate exactly what this numbers is. If you are using your own graded reading passage, count the number of words and figure out percentages before administering the DRA. Stop when students reach their instructional level (90% to 97% of words correctly identified). We can assume that anything above students’ instructional level is their frustration level. For example, if 2nd grade reading passage is at a student’s instructional level, we can assume that 3rd grade reading passages will be at his or her frustration level.
There may be differences in word identification and comprehension levels. For example, when reading a passage at the 2nd grade level Pat might correctly identify 98% of the words (independent level), yet score only 75% on comprehension measures (instructional level). This tells us that comprehension may be an area to focus on.
Qualitative Data Analysis
It usually works best to do the initial qualitative data analysis as soon as you have finished working with the student. In this way, the experience will be fresh in your memory. In the qualitative data analysis you are focusing on observed behaviors related to fluency and word identification as well as students’ general demeanor and your over-all impressions. These are the steps:
1. Before listening to your audio recordings, do a quick analysis. Write directly on the copy of the graded reading passage you used above. Was the student able to read the passage fairly easily and create meaning? Or did the student struggle? What type of reading behaviors did you notice? What was your impression of that student’s attempt to create meaning with print? Describe any interesting or important analyses, descriptions, or observations.
2. Analyze the word identification strategies used while reading. The questions in Figure 4.5 can be used to inform your analysis.
Figure 4.5. Listening for word identification strategies
1. What does the student do to identify words?2. Does the student use context clues?
3. Does the student recognize word parts?
4. Does the student use onsets to identify unknown words?
5. Does the student over-use phonics?
6. Does the student self-correct?
7. Are the miscues schema-related?
8. What types of miscues does the student make?
9. Does the student recognize and use morphemes (prefixes, suffixes, and roots)?
10. Does the student correctly identify the onset or beginnings of miscues words?
3. Analyze students reading fluency. The questions in Figure 4.6 can be used to inform your analysis.
Figure 4.6. Listening for reading fluency