Chapter 19: Foreign and Defense Policy

I Roots of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy

The U.S. followed a policy of isolationism in its beginning.
Isolationism—a national policy of avoiding participation in foreign affairs.
Unilateralism is another constant policy in US foreign affairs
Unilateralism—a national policy of acting without consulting others.
Moralism—the policy of emphasizing morality in foreign affairs
Pragmatism—the policy of taking advantage of a situation for national gain.

A The Constitution

The power to formulate and implement foreign policy was given to the national governments to keep America out of European affairs and Europeans out of American affairs.

B The Early History of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy

From the beginning the US remained isolationist in terms of getting involved with world affairs but eagerly pursued trade with foreign powers to better the country.
1790’s, the United States fought an undeclared naval war with France because France was seizing U.S. ships trading with France’s enemies.
1780 U.S. fought the Barbary Wars against pirates on the Barbary coast.
1807 Embargo Act—Passed by Congress to prevent U.S. ships from leaving U.S. ports for foreign ports without the approval of the federal government.
Continued British impressments of U.S. sailors furthered hurt US relations with Great Britain which led to the War of 1812.
1814 Treaty of Ghent ended the war, with Great Britain and the United States accepting prewar borders and treaty obligations.
President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 over fears that European powers especially France in Latin America and Russia in Alaska and the Northwest would try to expand their control in the Western Hemisphere.
Monroe Doctrine—President James Monroe’s 1823 pledge that the United States would oppose attempts by European states to extend their political control into the Western Hemisphere.
The U.S. had little capacity to enforce it.
Great Britain also wanted to keep other European powers out of the Americas. The Royal Navy thus protected British interests and promoted US preferences.

C The United States as an Emerging Power

19th Century the US began to emerge as a world power.
This process centered on three areas: trade policy and commerce, continental expansion and manifest destiny, and during the last half of the century, interests beyond the Western Hemisphere.

Trade Policy and Commerce

1791-1816 The US relied upon the principles of trade reciprocity and most favored nation (MFN) status.
Reciprocity meant that the United States would treat foreign traders in the same way that foreign countries treated US traders and MFN status meant that US exports would face the lowest tariffs, offered to any other country.
Tariffs—taxes on imports used to raise government revenue and to protect infant industries.
Congress passed the first protectionist tariff in 1816.
Next 8 years Congress adopted the “American System” of trade protection by adding increasingly higher tariffs.
While high tariffs protected the U.S. market for American producers, they also cut off foreign markets for American producers as foreign countries retaliated with their own high tariffs.

Continental Expansion and Manifest Destiny

Manifest Destiny—Theory that the United States was divinely mandated to expand across North America to the Pacific Ocean.
It permitted Americans to rationalize expansion as legitimate and moral. Americans criticized other for acquiring territory as colonialism but did not criticize US expansion b/c the acquired territory was connected to the United States.

Interests Beyond the Western Hemisphere

By the mid-nineteenth century, the United States concluded a commercial treaty with China, limited Europe’s ability to restrict U.S. trade with China, and opened Japan to Western trade.
As American economic interests in the Pacific expanded, so did U.S. interest in acquiring Pacific islands to support expansion.
1890’s US acquired the Hawaiian Islands, Midway Island, Wake Island, and part of Samoa.
1898 Spanish American War. US vs. Spain over Spanish policies and presence in Cuba saw the US emerge as a rising power.
The US won and acquired Puerto Rico, Phillipines, Guam, and Cuba for a few years.
The US was clearly becoming a colonial power.

D The Roosevelt Corollary

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine which advocated a more interventionist posture for the United States in policing world affairs.
Roosevelt Corollary—Concept developed by President Theodore Roosevelt early in the twentieth century that it was the US responsibility to assure stability in Latin America and the Caribbean.

E World War I

World War I: 1914-1918. US tried to stay neutral.
Several events; US economic involvement, Zimmerman note and Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare which sank the Lusitania, finally forced the US to enter the war in 1917.
Even though the United States entered the war late, its armed forces and economic assistance swung the tide of victory to the Allies’ side.
Post WWI US president Woodrow Wilson put great faith in collective security to maintain the peace.
Collective security—the concept that peace would be secured if all countries collectively opposed any country that invaded another.
President Wilson was instrumental in creating the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference.
League of Nations—created in the peace treaty that ended WWI, it was an international governmental organization dedicated to preserving peace.
The US Senate failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles which formalized the terms for the end of the war and the US never joined the League.
Reasons why Wilson failed:
A democratic president with a Senate controlled by Republicans, Wilson failed to include GOP senators among US delegates to the peace conference.
Besides partisan reasons, many senators believed that US membership in the League of Nations would fly in the face of traditional US isolationism and unilateralism.

F The Interwar Years

Following WWI the US followed a policy of isolationism and unilateralism.
During the 1920’s, the United States became the world’s leading source of credit and goods as the American economy prospered.
The Great Depression destroyed the US economy as well as that of most industrialized countries around the world.
The US and the rest of the world did little to oppose German, Japanese, and Italian aggression in the 1930’s.
Congress was particularly isolationist passing Neutrality Acts to keep the US from becoming involved in foreign conflicts.

II The United States as a World Power

World War II: 1939-1945
September 1, 1939—Germany invaded Poland and WWII began.
Pearl Harbor—Naval base in Hawaii attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, initiating US entry into World War II.
The United States was then fully engaged in a global war, participating in the Grand Alliance of the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and several other nations against the Axis powers of Japan, Germany, and Italy.
Before the war the US was an isolationist country with a sizeable power base that it rarely used.
By the end of the war, the United States was the leader of the most powerful military coalition that the world had ever seen.
The US had the only major economy in the world that had not been decimated by the war.

A World War II and Its Aftermath: 1941-1947.

The war transformed American society, cost tens of billions of dollars, and cost the lives of more than 400,000 members of the American armed forces.
The war ended in Europe on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day)
The war against Japan ended after the US dropped two atomic bombs on Japanese cities Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945)
August 15 Japan surrendered and the allies celebrated V-J Day and the end to World War II.
Before the end of WWII the US and 51 of its allies met in San Francisco to create the United Nations (UN)
United Nations (UN)—an international governmental organization created shortly before the end of World War II to guarantee the security of nations and to promote global economic, physical, and social well-being.
The five permanent members of the UN security council were the US, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, China, and France.
The UN is an international governmental organization (IGO)—an organization created by the governments of at least two and often many countries that operates internationally with the objectives of achieving the purposes that the member countries agree upon.
Bretton Woods Agreement—International financial agreement signed shortly before the end of World War II that created the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
This agreement was signed because it was believed that the collapse of international trade in the 1930’s created conditions that led to the rise of dictators and the beginning of WWII.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)—international governmental organization created shortly before the end of World War II to stabilize international financial relations through fixed monetary exchange rates.
The Bretton Woods Agreement also create the World Bank—international governmental organization created shortly before the end of WWII to provide loans for large economic development projects.
These creations showed a shift in US foreign policies form isolationism and unilateralism to internationalism and multilateralism.
Multilateralism—the US foreign policy that actions should be taken in cooperation with other states after consultation.

B The Cold War and Containment: 1947-1960

Truman Doctrine—US policy initiated in 1947 of providing economic assistance and military aid to countries fighting against communist revolutions or political pressure.
This policy was developed to retaliate to the Soviet seizure of Eastern Europe and the fear that they would try to take over the world.
Cold War
The Truman Doctrine was used to aid Greece and Turkey and they as the backing for the Marshall Plan.
Marshall Plan—European Recovery Program, named after Secretary of State George C. Marshall of extensive US aid to Western Europe after World War II.
The Marshall Plan provided the basis for European economic recovery, which prevented communist parties form winning elections throughout Western Europe.
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were the linchpins of the strategy of containment.
Containment—strategy to oppose expansion of Soviet Power, particularly in Western Europe and East Asia, with military power, economic assistance, and political influence.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)—the first peace time military treaty the United States joined, NATO is a regional political and military organization created in 1950.
North Atlantic Treaty—precursor to NATO signed by US and 11 other countries.
Warsaw Pact—a defensive group the Soviets established with their Eastern European satellite countries to counter NATO.
1950 to 1953 Korean War: North Korea invaded South Korea US sent troops to help they still remain divided today.
Starting in the 1950’s much of the US military strategy was based on nuclear weapons and deterrence.
Deterrence was the theory that if a potential enemy wanted to attack but knew that it would in turn be attacked, it would not attack.
1950’s and 1960’s a new version of deterrence was called MAD for Mutually Assured Destruction, in other words both sides had enough nuclear weapons that if one attacked first the other would still be completely destroyed.
Containment was the core US foreign and military during the Cold War and most Americans accepted the idea that containment required the United States to adopt pragmatic policies such as supporting authoritarian governments that opposed communism.

C Containment, Cuba, and Vietnam: 1961-1969

Cuban Missile Crisis—the 1962 confrontation that nearly escalated into war between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet deployment of medium range ballistic missiles in Cuba. The Soviet Union under Khrushchev backed down and later withdrew the missiles.
After crisis most Americans agreed containment was necessary. Few questioned the morality of containment, the necessity for pragmatism, or the need for internationalism and American-led multilateralism.
Vietnam War—Between 1965 and 1973, the United States deployed up to 500,000 troops to Vietnam to try to prevent North Vietnam from taking over South Vietnam; the effort failed and was extremely divisive within the United States.
US citizens began to question the US role in Vietnam, our moral superiority, and whether or not containment was the right policy with the Soviet Union.

D Détente and Human Rights: 1969-1981

Détente—the relaxation of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union that occurred during the 1970’s.
Détente was more than just 6 summits it included increased trade, arms control agreements, and cultural exchanges.
Nixon emphasized pragmatism in foreign policy to the extent that he exclude moralism.
Carter replaced Nixon and emphasized human rights.
Human rights—the belief that human beings have inalienable rights such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion.
The Iranian hostage crisis eroded Carter’s support in the United States. (The hostages were not released until the day Carter left office in 1981.
Détente finally ended when the Soviet Union invade Afghanistan.

E Containment Revisited and Renewed: 1981-1989

Ronald Reagan followed Jimmy Carter in office.
Reagan did the following during his first term:
Accelerated the arms build up in response to Soviet influence in developing countries.
Initiated an activist foreign policy that included the invasion of Grenada, a pro Soviet island nation in the Caribbean
Supported the Contras, an insurgency attempting to overthrow the pro-Soviet Sandinista government in Nicaragua in Central America.
Reagan emphasized morality in American foreign policy and pushed to create an open international economic system.
1984—Reagan Doctrine—policy that the United States would provide military assistance to anti-communist groups fighting against pro-Soviet governments in Afghanistan, Angola, Mozambique, and Nicaragua.
These programs increased the cost of Soviet involvement there and led Soviet leaders to rethink their foreign policy.
Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev recognized these problems and moved to restructure the Soviet Union and provide a better relationship with the US—perestroika.

F Searching for a New International Order: 1989-2001

1989 Vice President George Bush succeeded Ronald Reagan in office.
1989 many Eastern European countries revolted against their governments. Gorbachev order the troops not to respond and in every communist country in Eastern Europe the governments fell.
1990 Iraq invasion of Kuwait produced a new challenge.
Persian Gulf War began in 1991, in an attack called Operation Desert Storm the US and allied forces defeated Iraq in a matter of weeks.
Powell Doctrine—The Powell Doctrine advocates an all or nothing approach to military intervention. Among other criteria it emphasizes the use of overwhelming force to ensure quick and decisive victory, and the adoption of an exit strategy prior to any intervention.—Colin Powell Chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
The collapse of the Soviet Union provided complex questions for Bill Clinton who took office in 1993.
Clinton’s agenda centered on implementing engagement and enlargement, shaping new international economic relationships, deciding when US armed forces should be used overseas, and puzzling over what role the US should play in the post-Cold War world.
Engagement—policy implemented by the Clinton administration that the United States would remain actively involved in foreign affairs.
Enlargement—Policy implemented during the Clinton administration that the United States would actively promote the expansion of democracy and free markets throughout the world.
No major pattern to US military intervention in the mid to late 1990’s. mostly for humanitarian reasons.
International economic issues were another focus of Clinton’s economic activities.
Clinton guided NAFTA into law.
NAFTA—North American Free Trade Agreement—Agreement that promotes free movements of goods and services among Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
The Clinton administration also created the WTO---World Trade Organization—international government organization created in 1995 that manages multilateral negotiations to reduce barriers to trade and settle disputes.

G The War on Terrorism: 2001 to Present

9/11/2001—members of al-Qaeda attacked the United States.
Al-Qaeda—Worldwide terrorist organization led by Osama bin Laden; responsible for numerous terrorist attacks against US interests including the 9/11 attacks against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.
3,000 people died at the World Trade Center and another 189 died at the Pentagon.
War on Terrorism—initiated by George W. Bush after the September 11, 2001 attacks to weed out terrorist operatives throughout the world, using diplomacy, military means, improved homeland security, stricter banking laws, and other means.
Taliban—fundamentalist Islamic government of Afghanistan that provided terrorist training bases for al-Qaeda.
Bush launched Operation Enduring Freedom against al-Qaeda and the Taliban regime in October 2001.
The Terrorist attacks had a profound impact on US foreign policy.
George W. Bush and his foreign policy team concluded that a more ambitious, “muscular” posture was needed to fight threats to US interests.
Bush Doctrine—Policy advocated by President George W. Bush of using preemptive military action against a perceived threat to US interests.
US war against Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq this signaled the implementation of the Bush Doctrine.
Based on faulty intelligence information that suggested Hussein was building weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) (WMD’s—biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons, which present a sizeable threat to US security.) the US government chose to act even though the UN Security Council refused to endorse the recourse to war, and even without the support of key allies such as France and Germany.
The September 11 terrorist attacks gave the United States two overarching foreign and defense policy priorities:
Defense of the homeland
Pursuing the global war on terrorism.

III Foreign and Defense Policy Decision Making