Chapter 12 notes –Motivation –‘15
Motivation: what energizes and directs behavior; naturepush/drive/need and nurtureincentive/pull/want
-instinct, drive reduction, homeostasis, incentives, optimum arousal
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: fundamental needs (physiological and safety), psych and social needs (belongingness, love, self-esteem), self-actualization needs
Hunger motivation: Keys experiment
Physiological sources: Washburn experiment, brain -- lateral hypothalamus (LH) vs. ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH);
insulin vs. glucose, orexin vs. leptin, ghrelin vs. PYY; set point, basal metabolic rate
Psychological sources: when - Rozin exp. and Schacter exp.; sweet and salty genetic (plus neophobia, cravings);
what: culture;
-Eating disorders – anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, psych and cultural issues, Rozin again (chart)
Sexual motivation: Kinsey research, ‘40s-‘50s; problems…
-physio: ‘60s: Masters and Johnson: sexual response cycle stages – excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution, women vs. men (refractory period), sex disorders
-Hormones and Sex Behavior: us versus animals, estrogen, testosterone levels
-castration / Depo-Provera, testosterone replacement therapy
psychology of Sex –
-External stimuli – both, men more; problems with erotica…
-Imagined: dreams, fantasies, and the rape myth
Adolescent Sexuality – contributing factors to teen pregnancy; STD vulnerability
Sexual orientation – enduring sexual attraction…
-percentage controversy, issues, “erotic plasticity”
-sources: social / environmental contributors?;
-the brain and sexual orientation: Simon LeVay; hypothalamus;
-genetics markers? – influences; identical twins
early environment -- prenatal hormones observed differences (chart, 491)
Sex and human values…
The Need (Want?) toBelong
Aiding survival, strong!; effects on self-esteem, behavior, relationships, health
Achievement motivation and work– cognitive; job vs. career vs. calling -- flow;
-Industrial-organizational psych – personnel, organizational, human factors
-personnel: harnessing strengths, interviewer illusion, structured interviews, appraising performance – 360 degree feedback, halo, leniency/severity, recency errors
-organizational: achievement motivation, satisfaction and engagement, flow,grit
-managing well – harnessing strengths, specific/challenging goals, choosing an
appropriate leadership style – task /directive /theory x vs. social /participative / theory y;
-great person theory of leadership, transformational, voice effect
Kurt Lewin research,consensus
Chapter 12 notes –Motivation – with spaces
Motivation: what energizes and directs behavior;
naturepush/drive/need and nurtureincentive/pull/want
instinct,
drive reduction, homeostasis, incentives,
optimum arousal
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: fundamental needs (physiological and safety), psych and social needs (belongingness, love, self-esteem), self-actualization needs
Hunger motivation: Keys experiment
Physiological sources: Washburn experiment,
brain -- lateral hypothalamus (LH) vs. ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH);
insulin vs. glucose, orexin vs. leptin, ghrelin vs. PYY; set point, basal metabolic rate
Psychological sources:
when - Rozin exp.
and Schacter exp.;
sweet and salty genetic (plus neophobia, cravings);
what: culture;
-Eating disorders – anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, psych and cultural issues, Rozin again (chart)
Sexual motivation: Kinsey and Pomeroy research, ‘40s-‘50s; problems…
-physio: ‘60s: Masters and Johnson: sexual response cycle stages – excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution,
women vs. men (refractory period), sex disorders
-Hormones and Sex Behavior: us versus animals, estrogen, testosterone levels
-castration / Depo-Provera, testosterone replacement therapy
psychology of Sex –
-External stimuli – both, men more; problems with erotica…
-Imagined: dreams, fantasies, and the rape myth
Adolescent Sexuality – dimension vs. expression
-cultural and time variance,
contributing factors to U.S. sex stats; STD vulnerability
Sexual direction / orientation – enduring sexual attraction…
-percentage controversy, issues, “erotic plasticity”
-sources: social / environmental contributors?;
-the brain and sexual orientation: Simon LeVay; hypothalamus;
-genetics markers? – influences; identical twins
early environment -- prenatal hormones observed differences (chart, 479)
Sex and human values…
The Need (Want?) toBelong
Aiding survival, strong!;
effects on self-esteem, behavior, relationships, health
Achievement motivation and work– cognitive; job vs. career vs. calling -- flow;
-Industrial-organizational psych – personnel, organizational, human factors
-personnel: harnessing strengths, interviewer illusion, structured interviews, appraising performance – 360 degree feedback, halo, leniency/severity, recency errors
-organizational: achievement motivation, satisfaction and engagement, flow, grit
-managing well – harnessing strengths, specific/challenging goals, choosing an
appropriate leadership style – task /directive /theory x vs. social / participative / theory y;
-great person theory of leadership, transformational, voice effect
Kurt Lewin research, consensus
Chapter 12 Complete notes –Motivation –’09
Motivation: what energizes and directs behavior;
naturepush/drive/need and nurtureincentive/pull/want
motivation- the need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
nature push/drive/need- it is what we need, the physiological part
nurture/incentive/want- the cognitive and cultural part
instinct,
a complex behavior that has a fixed pattern and is unlearned throughout the species
drive reduction, homeostasis, incentives,
drive reduction-the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need. When a physiological need ↑, so does physiological drive. Used to reach homeostasis.
homeostasis- the maintenance of a steady internal state, the body is at an equilibrium.
Incentives- a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. It can be based on cultural surroundings.
optimum arousal
Some motivated behaviors increase arousal. There is an absence of any need-based drive. Human motivations aims to seek optimum levels of arousal. Having our biological needs satisfied, we need a stimulus to keep from getting bored. We do it to gain information or resources.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: fundamental needs (physiological and safety), psych and social needs (belongingness, love, self-esteem), self-actualization needs
Fundamental needs- need for food and water. If these needs are met then we are prompted to meet need for safety, the feel that the world is organized and predictable; the need to feel safe, secure, and stable.
Psych and social needs
- Belongingness and love needs: need to be loved, to belong, and be accepted, need to avoid loneliness
and alienation
- esteem needs: need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for
recognition and respect from others.
- self-actualization needs- need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential
Hunger motivation: Keys experiment
Keys experiment- He fed 36 male volunteers, all conscientious objectors to the war, just enough food to maintain their initial weight. For six months, they cut this food in half. Soon their body weights dropped 25% below starting weight. Physiologically they became obsessed with food. Lost all interest in sex and social activities. They became preoccupied with their unfilled basic need.
Physiological sources: Washburn experiment,
Washburn experiment- intentionally swallowed a balloon. When inflated in stomach, the balloon transmitted stomach contractions to recording device. He pressed a key each time he felt hungry. This demonstrated that stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger.
brain -- lateral hypothalamus (LH) vs. ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH);
Lateral hypothalamus- brings on hunger
ventromedial hypothalamus: depresses hunger
insulin vs. glucose, orexin vs. leptin, ghrelin vs. PYY; set point, basal metabolic rate
insulin: hormone secreted by the pancreas. ↑ in insulin, ↓ blood glucose because it is converted to stored fat by the insulin
glucose: form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides a major source of energy for body tissues. If blood glucose levels ↓, hunger↑
orexin: hunger triggering hormone
leptin: hunger-dampening chemicals, secreted by fat cells
ghrelin: hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
PYY: digestive hormone that suppresses appetite
Set point: the point where the weight thermostat is supposed to set, when fall below normal body weight hunger ↑ and metabolic rate↓. Body weight ↑ hunger and metabolic ↓ rate ↑. Heredity influences this.
Basal metabolic rate: the rate of energy expenditure for maintaining basic body functions when the body is at rest.
Psychological sources:
when - Rozin exp.
In 1998, he tested 2 patients with amnesia who had no memory for events occurring more than a minute ago. Every 20 minutes they would readily consume a meal. This showed that part of knowing when to eat is our memory of our last meal and the time elapsed between meals.
and Schacter exp.;
sweet and salty genetic (plus neophobia, cravings);
neophobia: scared of new foods
sweet and salty tastes are genetic and universal
cravings: serotonin is high, carbohydrates increase the serotonin so it is good when you are depressed
what: culture;
culture affects taste. Depends on what culture does and where you live.
Eating disorders – anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, psych and cultural issues, Rozin again (chart)
Anorexia nervosa: starts as a diet but then becomes a disorder when they drop significantly below normal weight (15% or more) and still feel fat so continue to starve themselves.
bulimia nervosa: overeating followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, and excessive exercise
psych and cultural issues: comes from families that are obese, criticize weight and are perfectionists. It is genetic and culturally influenced. The most vulnerable idealize thinness and have body dissatisfaction. Cultures give norms and have certain expectations for how a person should look.
Sexual motivation: Kinsey and Pomeroy research, ‘40s-‘50s; problems…
Kinsey acknowledged that his nonrandom sample contained an overrepresentation of well-educated white urbanites. Revealed that most of men and nearly half of women reported having premarital sexual intercourse; most women and all men have masturbated; and women who reported masturbating to orgasm before marriage seldom had difficulties experiencing orgasm after marriage.
Problems: this was not a random sample, he watched the volunteers, he had his own agenda, and was not subjective.
-physio: ‘60s: Masters and Johnson: sexual response cycle stages – excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution,
Masters and Johnson: they monitored or filmed more than 10,000 sexual “cycles”
sexual response cycle stages: four stages of sexual responding .
- excitement phase: genital areas become engorged with blood, a woman’s vagina expands and
secretes lubricant, and her breasts and nipples may enlarge
- plateau phase: excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rate increase, penis fully
engorged and fluid appears at top, vaginal secretion increases, clitoris retracts and feel orgasm
- orgasm: muscle contractions all over body during this time, accompanied by further increase in
breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates. Woman’s orgasm reinforces intercourse, which is
essential to natural reproduction, and increases retention of deposited sperm. Rhythmic genital
contractions create a pleasurable feeling of sexual release.
4. resolution phase: after orgasm, body returns to unaroused state as engorged genital blood vessels
release their accumulated blood. The male enters refractory period.
women vs. men (refractory period), sex disorders
men refractory period: lasts from a few minutes to a day or more, during which he is incapable of another orgasm.
Female refractory period: shorter duration, may enable her to have another orgasm if restimulated during or soon after resolution
Sexual disorders: problems that consistently impair sexual functioning. Includes lack of sexual energy and arousability. For men, premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction. For women, orgasmic disorder, which is infrequently or never experiencing orgasms.
Hormones and Sex Behavior: us versus animals, estrogen, testosterone levels
Humans: hormones loosely influence sexual behavior. Women are more responsive to testosterone level that to estrogen level.
Animals: nature neatly synchronizes sex with fertility
Estrogen: female sex hormone, female becomes sexually receptive when this hormone peaks at ovulation. Can stimulate receptivity by injecting female animals with estrogen
Testosterone: the male sex hormone. These levels are more constant, harder to manipulate sexual behavior with hormones. Fluctuations in these levels have little effect on sexual drive.
If women’s natural testosterone level drops, sexual interest may wane.
-castration / Depo-Provera, testosterone replacement therapy
Castration: lose testes
testosterone replacement therapy: restored diminished sexual appetite like sexual activity, arousal and pleasure
Depo-Provera: a drug that reduces testosterone level to that of a pubertal boy.
psychology of Sex –
Depends on internal physiological factors and influenced by external and imagined stimuli as well as cultural experiences.
If we do not have sex, feel like dying, but we do not.
-External stimuli – both, men more; problems with erotica…
Men become aroused when see, hear, or read erotic material. Brains respond differently, a more active amygdala
Women exhibit nearly as much arousal to same stimuli
Reading or watching erotica may create expectations that few men and women can fulfill
-Imagined: dreams, fantasies, and the rape myth
dreams:
Genital arousal accompanies all types of dreams even if they don’t have any sexual content
In nearly all men, 40% of women dream about sexual imagery that leads to an orgasm
In men, nighttime orgasm and nocturnal emissions are more likely when orgasm has not occurred recently.
Fantasies:
About 95% of both men and women have sexual fantasies
Men fantasize about sex more often, more physically, and less romantically, and prefer less personal and faster paced sex content in books and videos.
Adolescent Sexuality – dimension vs. expression
Physical maturation fosters a sexual dimension to emerging identity
Sexual expression varies dramatically with time and culture
-cultural and time variance,
Before 1900 only 3 percent had premarital sex by age 18, today 42% Canadian 16 year olds have had sexual intercourse
Teen intercourse rates are higher in Western Europe but lower in Arab and Asian countries.
contributing factors to U.S. sex stats; STD vulnerability
Increase in teen sexual activity led to an increase in adolescent pregnancy rate.
Often impoverished futures of teen mothers and children in father-absent homes have prompted research on teen sexuality, adolescents’ use of contraceptives, and teens’ risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections.
More sexually active higher chances of getting STD
Factors that lead to teen pregnancy: ignorance, guilt related to sexual activity, minimal communication about birth control, alcohol use, and mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity
Sexual direction / orientation – enduring sexual attraction…
Sexual orientation: our enduring sexual attraction toward members of our own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
-percentage controversy, issues, “erotic plasticity”
3-4% men and 1-2% women are homosexual
homosexual people are made fun of in movies, TV shows, and advertisements
sexual orientation is neither willfully chosen nor willfully changed
women’s sexual orientation is less strongly felt and potentially more fluid and changeable than men’s.
erotic plasticity: more likely to be bisexual
homosexuals suffers from higher rates of depression and risk of suicide attempts because of bullying, harassment, and discrimination
-sources: social / environmental contributors?;
likelihood of a biological component of homosexuality is found in studies of same-sex behavior in several hundred species, straight-gay differences in body and brain characteristics, genetic studies of family members and twins, and effect of exposure to certain hormones during critical periods of prenatal development.
Homosexuals are found more in poets, writers, and more likely to be gay if have older brother
Same sex attraction if segregated by sex at puberty
We do not know the environmental factors yet
-the brain and sexual orientation: Simon LeVay; hypothalamus;
LeVay studied sections of the hypothalamus taken from deceased heterosexual and homosexual people . He was gay and for nine months he looks through his microscope at a cell cluster. His discovery was the cell cluster was reliably larger in heterosexual men than in women and homosexual men.
Brain anatomy influences sexual orientation
Gays and lesbians differ from straight counterparts in preferences for sex-related sweat odors
In some brain areas, homosexual men are more likely to have female-typical neuroanatomy than heterosexual men.
-genetics markers? – influences; identical twins
early environment -- prenatal hormones observed differences (chart, 491)
Homosexuality appears to run in families. Twin studies have established that genes play a substantial role in explaining differences in sexual orientation.
Identical twin is more likely than a fraternal twin to share a co-twin’s homosexual orientation
“gay genes” exist through kin selection, maternal genetics . Genes that convey a reproductive advantage in mothers and aunts somehow influence sexual orientation of their sons and nephews.
In some cases, abnormal prenatal hormone conditions have altered a fetus’ sexual orientation.
Critical period for brain’s neural-hormonal control system may exist between middle of second and fifths months after conception.
Exposure to hormone levels typically experienced by female fetuses during this time appear to predispose the person to be attracted to males in later life.
Genes code for prenatal hormones and brain anatomy that predispose temperaments that lead to sexual orientation and attract to dissimilar sex.
There are brain differences, genetic influences; prenatal hormonal influences that affect sexual orientation. All these contribute to the observed gay-straight differences in: spatial abilities, fingerprint ridge counts, auditory system development, handedness, occupational preferences, relative finger lengths, gender nonconformity, age of onset of puberty in males, male body size, and sleep length.
Sex and human values…