CHAPTER 10
PRACTICING SPEECH WORDING

Chapter Summary

This chapter addresses the critical role of language in the speech process, specifically discussing how language can be used to speak clearly, vividly, emphatically, and appropriately, while remaining sensitive to the audience. It begins with the foundational relationship between language and meaning, and then continues, discussing the impact of language, its use in public speaking, and its influence on the audience.

Transition from the 12th Edition

Overall, the chapter’s information and examples have been updated to reflect current issues and resources. Specifically, the section on strengthening vocabulary has been expanded, providing resources to accomplish this goal, as well as the section on sensitivity, which now includes new material on avoiding profanity and vulgarity.

Chapter Outline

Introduction (p. 175): Effective speech wording evolves out of an appreciation for the complex relationship between language and meaning, and an understanding of the specific tactics used to increase the audience’s recognition and comprehension of that meaning.

Language and Meaning—though it may not seem so, the relationship between language and meaning is complex (pp. 175-176).

  1. First, language must be learned.

Both individuals and generations, within the language community, must be learned anew.

Learning language is a continual process.

Words and their meanings are not always learned in the same way.

  1. Second, each utterance is a creative act.

Language is used to create new sentences representing meaning.

Though there is some repetition, most utterances are unique.

  1. Third, a word’s meaning is not fixed, but dependent on its interpreter.
  1. Denotation refers to the direct, explicit meaning given to a word by its language community (the dictionary definition).

Denotation reflects current and past practice in the language community.

Because dictionaries use words to define words, definitions and meanings vary across dictionaries and time.

Also, meaning will depend on context—the position of the word in the sentence and its relationship to words around it—as well

  1. Connotation refers to the feelings or evaluations associated with a word.
  1. Perception of a word’s connotation is perhaps more important than its denotation, in how the word’s meaning is interpreted.
  2. Failure to realize the possible misunderstandings/ miscommunications caused by a word’s connotation can hurt the speaker.

Speaking clearly—reducing the use of ambiguous and confusing language by using more specific, concrete, precise, and familiar words (pp. 177-180).

  1. Using specific language—clarifying meaning, by narrowing what is understood from a general category to a particular item of group within a category.
  1. General, abstract, and imprecise words usually come to mind first when expressing a thought, forcing the listener to choose from multiple images, rather than a singular focused image.
  2. The more listeners are forced to provide their images, the more likely they are to see meanings differently than the speaker intended.
  3. Drawing from a larger vocabulary, both speakers and listeners, provide more choices for conveying and receiving the correct meaning.
  1. Utilizing a larger vocabulary does not mean impressing the audience with unfamiliar words.
  2. Rather, select the simplest, most familiar word to convey the specific meaning.
  3. Use a more difficult word only if it is the very best for the context.
  1. Providing details and examples—achieving clarity by adding details and examples to words or messages lacking a concrete or precise meaning.

  1. Being sensitive to cultural differences—understanding how individualism and collectivism influence expectations of and clarity in language.

Individualistic cultures emphasize individual goals more than group goals because the culture values uniqueness.

Use low-context communication where information is embedded in the message.

Present information directly.

Operate by saying directly what is meant and getting directly to the point.

Collectivistic cultures emphasize group goals more than individual goals because these cultures value harmony and solidarity.

Use high-context communication where people expect other to know how they’re thinking and feeling.

Present some messages indirectly to avoid embarrassing the other person.

Operate by intentionally framing information ambiguously, where the listener must understand both the message and the context.

Speaking vividly and emphatically—emphasizing key words and ideas through memorable language (pp. 180-183).

  1. Using vivid language—using words and phrases that are full of life, bright and intense.

A simile is a direct comparison of dissimilar things using the word like or as.

A metaphor is a comparison that establishes a figurative identity between the objects being compared.

A good speaker will use creativity to develop original and vivid metaphors and similes to help convey meaning.

  1. Emphasizing key words—instructing the audience on what it should pay most attention to by giving weight to certain words or ideas.
  1. Proportion refers to emphasizing a word by the amount of time spent discussing it.
  2. Sequential positioning refers to emphasizing by presenting information in the order of importance.
  3. Repetition refers to emphasizing by repeating important words and ideas.

  1. Emphasizing through internal transitions refers to highlighting the relationship between main points.

Speaking appropriately—using language that adapts to the needs, interests, knowledge, and attitudes of the listeners and avoiding language that alienates audience members (pp. 183-187).

  1. Adapting the formality of language to the occasion.
  1. A speaker’s goal is to adapt his/her language to the occasion and specific audience.
  2. Appropriate language reflects the audience and the occasion, but does not require the speaker to adopt unfamiliar or uncharacteristic language patterns.
  3. As a rule, speakers usually adopt more informal language with smaller familiar audiences, and more formal language with larger audiences or with those who have authority.
  1. Limiting the use of jargon and slang.

Jargon refers to technical terminology, meaningless talk, or gibberish.

Slang refers to informal, nonstandard vocabulary.

When speaking with an audience outside of a certain language community, a speaker should limit the use of jargon or slang because it will not be familiar with the terminology.

  1. Showing sensitivity—avoiding sexist, racist, or otherwise biased expressions that belittle a person or group.
  1. Avoid using profanity or vulgarity, despite the modern acceptance of casual swear words such as “hell”.
  2. Avoid using inclusive language, such as the generic “he”, nonparallel language, and marking.
  3. Avoid using hate speech—the use of words and phrases to demean and express prejudice toward another person or group.

Lecture Ideas

Introduce students to the legal aspects of libel, slander, and hate speech, specifically focusing on the consequences of misusing words, whether intentional or not. For specific information about slander, libel, and hate speech, as well as additional resources, refer to (a) the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) web site (b) The Department of State’s unfettered press web site at and the Society of Professional Journalists’ website For a closer look at hate speech, specifically, refer to the additional resources at the end of this chapter.

Speaker credibility and audience adaptation are two major elements of effective speaking. Find on INFOTRAC Payne and Downing’s (2000, Journal of Technical Writing, 30.4) article “Speaking Ebonics in a professional context: The role of ethos/source credibility and perceived sociability of the speaker.” Based on the article, generate a class lecture addressing when it is and is not appropriate or effective to adopt language and speech patterns of the audience.

Virgil Scudder’s (2004, Vital Speeches of the Day, 70.18) article “The Importance of Communication in a Global World” explores the communicative barrier erected by culture. According to Scudder, the communicative gap between cultures must be bridged. Using this article, discuss the impact of culture on all aspects of communication. With such an embedded hold on culture, how is culture-specific communication to be bypassed? What recent events involving cultural overlaps have highlighted miscommunication?

Contact the library about “great” speeches of the past to show how American language has changed from formal to informal, both in style and structure. Lead the class in a discussion to find more examples of how modern speech patterns have changed.

Have students complete the exercises under “Choosing Effective Language” in the Infotrac College Edition Student Activities Workbook for Communication.

Discussion Questions

  1. Is fame an excuse for inappropriate speech acts? If so, is it ethical? If no, why does it continue to be used as such? How often are such “celebrities” held accountable for their word usage? Do accountability and consequence regulate a celebrity’s inappropriate language?
  1. More or less, the modern business arena is a global market. How has language adapted to serve a more universal audience and usage? Will cultural differences in language and experience eventually fade away?
  1. Reflect on experiences that you have had during private and/or public communication transactions, which you believe were influenced by the cultural differences of the participants. How would you characterize the event? What were the major aspects of, or turning points in, the communication? Was it successful/ unsuccessful? Could knowledge of the differences between high and low context speakers have helped your experience with others? How?
  1. Some scholars believe college students are their own culture (see IRM Chapter 5). As a unique group, generate a list of words most commonly used by your demographic. Which words are suitable for your class speeches (why)? Which are inappropriate (why)? In your class, what determines the level of appropriateness—the instructor, your peers, the context, society?

Class Activities

Activity #10.1: The Ladder of Abstraction

This activity is designed to help students differentiate between specific language and abstract language. Remind students that by their nature, abstract terms do not create mental pictures. Rather, specific images are generated through the use of concrete terms. The ladder of abstraction allows students to see a continuum of descriptions of the same word, from the most abstract to the most specific. For example:

PHONE CALLDESCRIPTION

Most AbstractMost Abstract

“Hi, what are you doing?”A thing

“Nothing.”An animal

“Nothing?”A mammal

“Nope. Just watching TV.”A carnivore

“TV huh?”A cat

“Yeah. You know, CBS.”A male cat

“CBS?”A domestic male cat

“Yeah, season finale of Survivor.”My 3-year-old tabby cat MoMo

Most ConcreteMost Concrete

Activity #10.4: Story Chain

Provide students with a list of random words (5-7). Using ALL of the words, the students must create a short story (only a paragraph or so), complete with characters, a scene, and some form of action. Encourage students to be as creative a possible. When everyone is finished, have students deliver their short stories in front of the class. Discuss the similarities and differences in their stories, as well as the reasons for such. Below is an example list of words and two actual student stories.

LIST: Ocean, Navigate, Doctor, Blender, Captain, Eye Patch, Crab, Horse

Student #1: Captain Blender was as dangerous as they come, sailing the ocean with his pirate crew. Though his sight was hindered by an eye patch, it did not prevent him from navigating the waters. One day his ship, the Cunning Crab, was approaching land and Blender spotted his long lost horse Doc’.

Student #2: After a choppy night navigating the ocean, Captain Ahab was feeling seasick. Eyes blurred by the salt water, Ahab mistook the crew’s dog for a horse. The ship’s doctor recommended he drink a crab smoothie, freshly prepared in the galley’s blender, and wear and eye patch for the remainder of the day.

Activity #10.5: Ready, Set…Draw

Have a student volunteer to describe a drawing. The drawing is of shapes; very abstract (see below). The first speaker must describe the drawing to the audience, while the audience attempts to recreate it. The audience cannot ask for clarification from the volunteer, and the volunteer may only discuss the “step” or “direction” he/she is on (cannot go back and discuss a previous direction). When finished with the first drawing, have a second student volunteer to describe a second drawing. This time, students may ask for clarification from the volunteer, but only for the “step” or “direction” they are presently on (again, cannot go back to discuss a previous direction). Which outcome is more accurate? Why?

Activity #10.6: Using Vivid Language

OPTION A

This activity exemplifies the importance of using specific, concrete, precise, and familiar language. In order to view how each audience member attaches different meanings to different abstract terms, have the class write the first word that comes to mind in response to the following list of “generic and ambiguous” terms. For discussion, choose three words (or more depending on available time) and have everyone share their individual reactions. Remember, one person’s Chihuahua is another’s Bullmastiff.

TERMS:CollegeBlondeHouse

DogCarHot

LoveFoodCool

VacationGoodDone

GreenExpensiveSweet

ForeignCheapFun

OPTION B

Have students choose a word from the list in Option A. Their goal is to create a vivid picture in their classmates’ heads, of a time or place—related to their word—through the use of vivid language. Students are to individually present their scenarios to the class. Afterwards, discuss the pictures. Which was the most vivid? Why? What did the speaker do to make the picture vivid? How did the speaker use concrete language and shared experiences?

Glossary of Key Terms

concrete words: words that appeal to the senses of conjure a picture.

connotation: the feelings or evaluations we associate with a word.

context: the position of a word in a sentence and its relationship to other words around it.

denotation: the meaning found in the dictionary.

emphasis: the weight or importance given to certain words or ideas.

generic language: using words that may apply only to one sex, race, or other group as though they represent everyone.

hate speech: the use of words and phrases to demean another person or group to express the speaker’s hatred and prejudice toward that person or group.

internal transitions: words and phrases that emphasize the relationship between ideas within a main point.

jargon: technical terminology; meaningless talk, gibberish.

marking: the addition of sex, race, age, or other group designations to a description.

metaphor: a comparison that establishes a figurative identity between objects being compared.

nonparallel language: language in which terms are changed because of the sex, race, or other group characteristics of the individual.

precise words: words that narrow a larger category.

simile: a direct comparison of dissimilar things using like or as.

slang: informal, nonstandard vocabulary.

speaking appropriately: using language that adapts to the needs, interests, knowledge, and attitudes of the listener and avoiding language that alienates audience members.

specific language: words that clarify meaning by narrowing what is understood from a general category to a particular item or group within that category.

vivid language: language that is full of life—vigorous, bright, and intense.

Test Questions

Chapter 10

Multiple Choice

  1. All of the following are reasons for language’s complexity except ______.

a.language must be learned

b. language can be shared

c.language is unique

d.language has two types of meaning

ANS: bSEE PAGE 175

  1. ______is a word’s direct, explicit meaning given by its language community.
  1. denotation
  2. demarcation
  3. connotation
  4. context

ANS: aSEE PAGE 176

  1. ______is the feeling or evaluation associated with a word.
  1. denotation
  2. demarcation
  3. connotation
  4. context

ANS: cSEE PAGE 176

  1. If the audience is having difficulty understanding the intended meaning of a word, it can refer to the word’s ______, or its relationship to other words in the sentence.
  1. denotation
  2. demarcation
  3. connotation
  4. context

ANS: dSEE PAGE 176

  1. Saying, “The elderly gentlemen in the black suit and red tie entered the neighborhood grocery,” instead of, “The man went to the store,” is an example of a speaker ______.
  1. using denotation
  2. speaking quickly
  3. using specific language
  4. speaking complexly

ANS: cSEE PAGE 177

  1. If a speaker attempts to evoke the audience’s senses—touch, taste, smell, see, hear—then he/she is relying on ______.
  1. concrete words
  2. precise words
  3. mental pictures
  4. vivid cues

ANS: aSEE PAGE 177

  1. Narrowing a description from “blue collar worker” to “construction worker” to “bulldozer operator” is an example of using ______.
  1. concrete words
  2. precise words
  3. mental pictures
  4. vivid cues

ANS: bSEE PAGE 177

  1. What is a speaker attempting to do by claiming “Mo is ornery in the morning,” and following with “He refuses to stop meowing until he has been held and receives a saucer of milk”?
  1. Speak appropriately
  2. Use vivid language
  3. Introduce the audience to an ill tempered cat
  4. Explain the statement by providing details

ANS: dSEE PAGE 179

  1. When a speaker is addressing a ______audience, he she should use concrete examples, rather than indirectly stating the message.
  1. high context
  2. low context
  3. open minded
  4. closed minded

ANS: bSEE PAGE 180

  1. According to scholars, the rules, expectations, and clarity of verbal communication ______.
  1. are learned during childhood
  2. have no effect on the interpretation of meaning
  3. will vary from culture to culture
  4. are subject to transformation

ANS: cSEE PAGE 180

  1. The sentiment, “Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee” is an example of a ______.

a. metaphor

b. hyperbole

c. simile

d. exaggeration

ANS: cSEE PAGE 181

  1. If a speaker wanted to establish a figurative comparison between two ideas, he she would want to use a ______.

a. metaphor

b. hyperbole

c. simile

d. exaggeration

ANS: aSEE PAGE 181

  1. In order to focus the audience’s attention on the most important elements of a speech’s content, the speaker must ______the information.

a. broadcast

b. emphasize