CHAPTER 10:MORALPHILOSOPHY
Main Points
1.Ethicsor moralphilosophy isthestudyofmoraljudgments, whichare valuejudgmentsaboutwhatis virtuousandbase,justandunjust,morallyrightandwrong,morallygoodand badorevil,morallyproperandimproper,andsoon.
2.Becausemanyquestionscanbeaskedaboutmoraljudgments,ethicsencompassesmanyissues. Themostimportantquestion ofethics,however,issimply,Whichmoraljudgments arecorrect?
Skepticism,Relativism,andSubjectivism
3.Ethicalskepticism:Thedoctrinethatmoralknowledgeisnotpossible.Notethattheclaim“thereisnorightorwrong” isnotaskepticalbelief;itimpliessomemoralknowledge.
4.Descriptiverelativism: Notadoctrine of ethics, itmerelysaysthat peoplein differentcultureshavedifferentbeliefsaboutwhatismorallyrightandwrong;itsaysnothingaboutwhatismorallyrightand wrong.
5.Culturalrelativism:Theideathatwhataculturebelievesismorally rightor wrong ismorallyrightorwrongforpeopleinthatculture.Thisisasubjectivistethicalphilosophy.Note thatitwouldbeinconsistentforaculturalrelativisttoadvocate beingacceptingtowardanotherculture’spracticeifhisorher ownculturethoughtthatpracticewrong.
6.Individualrelativism:Whatisrightorwrongmorallyiswhateachindividualbelievesisrightorwrong.Thisisalsoasubjectivistethicalphilosophy.
Egoism
7.Descriptiveegoism:Thedoctrinethatinallconsciousactionthepersonactingisseekingtopromoteher or his self-interestaboveallelse.
8.Prescriptiveegoism:The doctrinethatinallconsciousactionapersonoughttoseekherorhisself-interestaboveallelse.
Hedonism
9.Hedonismisthepursuitofpleasure.
10.Psychological hedonism:Theultimateobjectofaperson’sdesireisalwayspleasure(adescriptivedoctrine).
11.Ethical hedonism:Apersonoughttoseekpleasureoverotherthings (aprescriptiveview).
12.Twovarietiesofethicalhedonism:Egoisticethicalhedonism(oneoughtto seekhisor herownpleasure overotherthings)anduniversalisticethicalhedonism(otherwiseknownasutilitarianism,inwhich oneoughttoseekthegreatest pleasureforthegreatestnumberofpeopleoverotherthings).
TheFiveMainEthicalFrameworks
13.Divine-commandethics: Godordainswhatoneought to do(examples:Augustine andAquinas).
14.Consequentialism:Oneoughttodowhateverhasthemostdesirableconsequences(Epi-cureans,stoics,utilitarians).
15.Deontologicalethics: Onemustdo one’smoralduty(inatleastsomecasesregardless ofconsequences) (Kant).
16.Virtueethics: One oughttodo what avirtuous personwould do (Plato, Aristotle).
17.Relativism: Oneoughttodowhatherorhiscultureorsocietythinksoneoughttodo. (Noneofthephilosopherscovered inthis chapterarerelativists, butmanystudentsare.)
TheEarlyGreeks
18.SophistsandSocrates:Moral judgmentsmust besupported byreasons.
19.Socrateswasalsoconcernedwiththemeaningofwordsthatsignifymoralvirtues,suchas justice,piety,andcourage.
20.Socrates:Wrongnessofbehaviorisduetoignorance.
21.Plato.Theory of Forms:Attheapexof all FormsistheFormof the Good.Corollary:BecausetheFormsdefinetruereality,individualthingsare realonlyinsofar astheypartakeoftheFormoftheGood.Additionalcorollary:Evilisunreal.
22.Plato:BecauseForms areapprehended by reason,oneshouldstrive forknowledgeoftheGoodandhenceberuledbyreason.Oneruledby reasonexhibits fourcardinal virtues—temperance,courage,wisdom,andjustice—andhasawell-orderedsoul;virtueisitsownreward.
23.Aesara,theLucanian.TheGreekphilosopherAesaraofLucaniataughtthatallmorallysig-nificant decisions,whetherregarding families orthestate,shouldreflectthe appropriateproportionsofreason,willpower,andsuchpositiveemotionsaslove.HeranalysisofthesoulwassimilartoPlato’s:shesaidthatthehumanpsychehad threeparts—themind,spiritedness,anddesire.
24.Aristotle.Thefirstgreatethicalnaturalist,Aristotleheldthatourhighestgood—ournaturalobjective—ishappiness,whichconsistsintwothings:enjoymentandtheexerciseanddevelopmentofthecapacitytoreason.
25.Aristotle:Virtueistheexerciseofourcapacitytoreason,andtherearetwokindsofvirtues:intellectualand moral.
26.Aristotle:Virtueisamatterofhabit;aperson’spleasuresrevealhismoralcharacter.Specificmoralvirtues(suchas courage) arethemeanbetweenextremes.
27.Aristotle madethedistinctionbetween an instrumentalend (anactperformedasameanstootherends)and anintrinsicend(anactperformed for itsownsake). Whenone comes tounderstandwhatthenatural functionofpeopleis,thenonefinallyknowswhatisintrinsicallythe“Good ofMan.”
28.Though bothPlatoandAristotlewereproponentsofwhatisnowcalledvirtueethics,for Platothe GoodwasanonnaturalForm;for Aristotle,thegood(for humans) is what humanbeingsactuallyseek(happiness,properlyunderstood).For Plato,the moral goodtranscendsnature; forAristotlethemoralgoodfindsitsgroundinginhumannature.
EpicureanismandStoicism
29.The four main schoolsofphilosophy followingAristotleweretheEpicureans,the Stoics,theSkeptics,andtheNeoplatonists.
30.EpicureanismandStoicismwerenaturalisticethicaltheories.
31.Epicureanism.Personalpleasureisthehighestgood.Epicurus:Weoughttoseekthepleasantlife,whichcomeswithsatisfactionofdesiresthatarenaturalandthesatisfactionofwhichisnecessaryforapleasantlife.Naturaldesiresthatneednotbesatisfiedmaybesatisfiedifdoingso doesnot leadtodiscomfortorpain.Unnatural/unnecessary desiresought nevertobe satisfied.
32.TheStoics.TheschoolwasfoundedbyZeno(a differentZeno fromtheonementionedinChapter2)who methisstudentsonthestoa(Greekfor“porch”).
33.Stoicism:We oughttoseektheuntroubledlife,whichcomesthroughneutral acceptance of thenaturalorderofthings.
34.Allthatoccursisinaccordancewithnaturallaw(reason):Whateverhappensistheinevitableoutcomeofthelogicoftheuniverse;allthathappenshasareason;so whateverhappensis forthebest.We ought toremainuninvolved emotionallyinour fate,and ourliveswillbeuntroubled.Epictetus wasamongthemostfamousoftheStoics.
ChristianizingEthics
35.St.Augustine. Christianized Platonicethics: God isthesourceof allthat isrealandgood.
36.AugustineexplainedevilbyadaptingthePlatonicview:Naturalevilistheabsenceofreality;moralevil isdisordered love—turningfromGod.
37.Augustine:Virtueandsinareconditionsofthesoul; whatmattersis nottheperson’sgooddeeds but thestate ofmind(intent)in whichthe personacts.
38.St.HildegardofBingen.ThismedievalGerman Benedictine nunsaidmysticalexperienceprovidesaformofknowledgeunavailabletopurerationalintrospection.
39.HeloiseandAbelard.Theethicsofthemedieval FrenchphilosopherHeloisehastwoprimarycomponents—(a)trueloveforanother,whetherplatonicorsexual,iscompletelyunselfishand asksnothing (disinterestedlove)and(b)themorality oftheactresidesintheintentionof theactor(moralityofintent). HerloveaffairwithAbelard,herphilosophyteacher,wasgoverned,she felt,by theseprecepts(thoughitturnedoutthatAbelard’s loveforHeloiseseemedpurelysexual).
40.Abelard:Sindoesnotconsistinactingonevildesires,oreveninhavingthem,butinconsentingtoacton evildesires.
41.St.ThomasAquinas.AquinasadaptedAristotelianthoughtforChristianity.Goodnessforhumansishappiness.
42.Aquinas:Naturallawisthelawofreason,whichleadsustoournaturalendinsofaraswefollowit.God’sdivinelaw,revealedtousthroughGod’sgrace,guidesustohappinesseverlasting.
43.Aquinas:Therearetwosetsofvirtues,thenaturalvirtuessuchascourage,temperance,justice,andprudence,andthe highervirtuesoffaith,love,andhope.
HobbesandHume
44.Hobbes.Heespousedaphilosophyofrelentless materialism.“Good”and “evil” denoteonlywhatonedesiresordetests;adescriptiveegoist,Hobbessaidpersonsseekpersonalsurvivalaboveallotherthings.It isanopenquestionwhetherhewasalsoaprescriptiveegoist.
45.Hume. Moral principles, Humeargued,are neither divineedictsnordiscoverablebyreason.
46.Valuejudgmentsarebasedonemotion,notreason.Hume:Moralandallother value judgmentsarebasedonemotion;actionswefindmorallypraiseworthyorblameworthycreatewithinusfeelingsofpleasureordispleasure,respectively.
47.Benevolence.Judgmentsofmoralapprovalareexpressionsofthepleasurethatweexperiencewhenpresentedwithbehaviorthatreflectsabenevolentcharacter.
48.Goodnessconsistsintraitsandactionsthatpromotethewelfareofpeople(thisidea wasappropriatedinthenineteenthcenturybytheutilitarians).Humebelievedthatwhensomeoneismorallypraisedorcondemned, it istheperson’s characterthat is beingpraisedorcondemned.Inthisrespect,HumeispartofthevirtueethicstraditionofPlato,Aristotle,andAquinas.
49.Hume’sinquiriesset thestageforsubsequent ethicalphilosophy.
50.CantherebeethicsafterHume?OptionsforethicsafterHumearefour:(1)DespiteHume,ethicsmightseek to establishthatmoralitycanbegrounded onreasonoronGod—Kant’s option. (2)ItmighttrytofindobjectivesourcesofmoralstandardsotherthanreasonorGod—theutilitarians’option.(3)Itmightseektodeterminehowoneshouldactgiventheabsenceofobjectivemoralstandards—theexistentialists’option.(4)Itmightabandonthesearchformoralstandardsaltogetherandconcentrateon ethicaldescriptivism—theoptionof analyticphilosophy.
Kant
51.Kantheldthatreasonalonecanascertainprinciplesofmorality;theycannotberevealedthroughscientificinvestigationsincescientificinquirycanneverrevealtousprinciplesweknowholdwithoutexception(asmoralprinciplesdo).
52.Thesupremeprincipleofmorality.Kant:Amoralruleisuniversalandabsolute.Thus,thesupremeprescriptionofmoralityistoact insucha waythatyoucould,rationally,willtheprincipleonwhichyouacttobeauniversallaw.
53.Andamoralrulemaybeexpressedasacategoricalimperative.
54.Whyyoushoulddowhatyoushoulddo.Youshoulddowhatyoushoulddobecauseitisright.Theconsequences ofanact,accordingtoKant,donot determine whethertheact isgood;only theintentor“will”withwhichit istakendoes that.
55.Becauseamoral imperativemustholdwithoutexception,itdiffersfromahypotheticalimperative whichstate, ineffect, thatoneought to do somethingif such-and-suchanend isdesired.
56.Rationalityisthesourceofallvalue,sotherationalwillisaloneinherentlygood.
57.Anotherformulation ofthecategorical imperative:Treatrationalbeings(e.g.,humans) ineveryinstanceasendsandneverjustasmeans.
58.Duty-basedethicalsystemssuchasKant’sareknownasdeontologicalethicalsystems.
TheUtilitarians
59.Adifferentviewwastakenbytheutilitarians,JeremyBenthamandJohnStuartMill:Therightnessofanaction or a ruleisidenticalwiththehappinessitproducesasaconsequence, with everyone considered. Utilitarians who think that what matters is the happiness produced by an act are act-utilitarians. Utilitarians who think that what matters is the happiness produced by following the rule implied by an act are rule-utilitarians.
60.Bentham.Happinessispleasure,andpositiveethicalvalue-wordshavemeaningonlywhendefinedintermsofpleasure.Pleasurecanbeevaluatedonly withreferencetoquantitativecriteria.
61.Mill.Somepleasuresarebetterthanothers;quality,aswellasquantity,ofpleasureisafactorinmoralvalue.
FriedrichNietzsche
62.Nietzschetook theviewthat there werebasicallyjust twomoralities: mastermorality(themoralityofthenobleindividual)andslavemorality(themoralityofthemasses,epitomizedbyChristianethics).Mastermoralityinvigoratedtherace,whereasslavemoralitywasadenialoflife.
63.Nietzschesawhisthis-worldlyphilosophyasacelebrationofthewilltopower,whichfindsitshighestexpressioninthenobleindividual,theÜbermenschorSuperman,whohasrisenbeyondtheslavecategoriesof“good”and“evil”andwholivesbytheprinciple“Thereisnogodorhumanover me.”
64.Nietzsche:“Whatdoesn’tkill usmakes usstronger.”Theultimateinternal humanbattle isbetweentwo forces,theApollonian (the forceofmeasure,order,harmony)and theDionysian(theforceofexcess,destruction,creativepower).Botharenecessaryifoneistobefullyandcreativelyalive.NietzschebelievedtheDionysianforcehadbeenlostalmostentirelyinslavemorality.
Boxes
TheGood Life
(Thevalueofphilosophy)
PlatoandDivine-CommandEthics
(Issomethingrightbecausethegodsdecreeit,ordotheydecreeitbecauseitisright?)
TheGo-for-ItPhilosophyofAristippus
(AlsoexplainsCyrenaicism)
DiogenestheCynic
(Saidtohavedressed inragsandlivedinanemptytub)
Profile:St.HildegardofBingen
(Thelifeofamystic)
TheTruthAboutHeloiseandAbelard
(Thefamouslove story)
HobbesandtheBeggar
(Arealtruisticactsreallyegoismindisguise?)
Cold-BloodedMurder
(Theexpressionsupports Hume’s beliefthatmoraljudgmentsarenottheoffspringofreason)
Profile:JeremyBentham
(Hisembalmed bodyandwaxheadisattheUniversityCollege,London)
Readings
10.1Plato, fromGorgias
Socrates’sanswertoCallicles,whoclaimsthebestlifeisthelifeoffollowingone’sappetitesordesires.
10.2Aristotle,fromNicomacheanEthics
Aristotle’s“roughoutline”ofthegood.
10.3Epicurus,from“EpicurustoMenoeceus”
Epicurus’srecommendations forthegoodlife.
10.4Epictetus,from“TheEncheiridion”
Severalpieces ofsageStoicadvice.Whathappensisn’tunderour control,butourattitudesare.
10.5ImmanuelKant,fromFoundationsoftheMetaphysicsofMorals
ThisisthepassageinwhichKantelucidateshisfamousCategoricalImperative.
10.6JohnStuartMill,fromUtilitarianism
Mill’sexpositionofthe“greatesthappinessprinciple”intermsofthequalityofpleasures.
10.7FriedrichNietzsche,fromBeyondGoodandEvil
AneffortbyNietzschetowarda“revaluationofvalues”ashecontrastsmastermoralitywithslavemorality.
Philosophers
•Peter Abelardset forth one of medieval philosophy’s most careful analyses of the morality of intent.254
•Aesara of Lucaniawas a Pythagorean philosopher from southern Italy who held that, by introspecting about the nature and structure of the human soul, we can identify a standard of personal and public morality.243
•St. Thomas Aquinasreconciled Aristotelian ethical naturalism with Christianity.256
•Aristotlewas an ethical naturalist who held that moral judgments are judgments of fact about the natural world. He said that happiness is our highest good.244
•St. Augustineused Platonic concepts to solve “the problem of evil,” held moral evil to be misdirected love, and identified God as the supreme moral authority and source of all goodness.250
•Jeremy Bentham,a utilitarian, held that the rightness of an action is identical with the pleasure it produces as its consequence and said that pleasure can be evaluated quantitatively.265
•Diogeneswas the most famous Cynic, who taught by shocking example that the wise person reduces all wants and avoids all comforts.249
•Epictetus,a leading Stoic, held that one’s highest objective is to find a serene or untroubled life through acceptance of the rational natural order of things.248
•Epicurus,an ethical egoist, held that one’s highest objective is to lead the pleasant life through moderate living.247
•Heloisewas a medieval French philosopher who held that the morality or immorality of an action is determined by the intention with which it is done.254
•St. Hildegard of Bingenwas a medieval German mystic philosopher who held that the moral powers of the soul come from its three faculties: understanding, insight, and execution.252
•Thomas Hobbesheld that “good” and “evil” denote what a person desires or hates; he maintained that our natural end is preservation of self.257
•David Humeheld that moral principles are neither divine edicts nor discoverable by reason and that value judgments are based on emotion. He said that the act that pleases our moral sensibilities is one that reflects the agent’s benevolent character.259
•Immanuel Kantheld that the supreme prescription of morality is to act always in such a way that you could rationally will the principle on which you act to be a universal law. He believed that what you should do, you should do, not because it promotes some end but simply because it is right.261
•John Stuart Mill,a utilitarian, held that the rightness of an action is identical with the happiness that it produces as its consequence and said that pleasure—a part of happiness—must be measured in terms of quality as well as quantity.266
•Friedrich Nietzschedistinguished between slave morality (the morality of the masses) and master morality (the morality of the nobleman). The former represents the denial of life; the latter represents the will-to-power.268
•Platoalso sought the essences of moral virtues, identifying these with the unchanging Forms, the highest of which he held to be the Form of the Good, the ultimate source of all value and reality.239
•Socratessought to discover the essences of moral virtues and championed the use of reason in moral deliberation.239
•Sophistswere professional teachers of fifth-century b.c.e. Greece whose attack on traditional moral values marks the beginnings of ethical philosophy.239
•Zenowas the founder of Stoicism.247
Suggested Further Readings
Julia Annas, The Morality of Happiness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). An analysis of ancient ethical theory.
Julia Annas, Platonic Ethics, Old and New (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999). A detailed and widely acclaimed analysis of Plato’s ethical thought.
Aristotle, The Nichomachean Ethics, Martin Ostwald, ed. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1962). Also, Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Robert Bartlett and Susan Collins, translators (University of Chicago Press, 2011).
James Baillie, Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Hume on Morality (New York: Routledge, 2000). A relatively clear presentation of Hume’s thought on passions, taste, virtue, and other related topics.
Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, J. J. Burns, H. L. A. Hart, and F. Rosen, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). This is the edition you should own. Includes an important essay by Hart.
Simon Blackburn, Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 2003). A brief look at the basic issues and development in moral philosophy.
R. Bracht Branham and Marie-Odile Goulet-Cazé, eds., The Cynics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). These essays provide a good overview of this movement and its significance.
Sarah Broadie, Ethics with Aristotle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). A respected treatment of the subject.
Thomas Cleary, trans., Living a Good Life (Boston: Shambhala, 1997). Practical advice on life in short quotations from Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Diogenes.
Martin Cohen, The Essentials of Philosophy and Ethics (New York: Hodder Arnold, 2006). A wide-ranging reference work on ethics with more than 500 entries.
David E. Cooper, ed., Ethics: The Classic Readings (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997). A collection of critical texts concerning ethics, including contributions by Indian and Chinese philosophers.
F. C. Copleston, Aquinas (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1955). See Chapter 5 of this text.
Epictetus, Discourses, Book 1, Robert F. Dobbin, trans. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). A recent translation with background information.
Epictetus, The Handbook of Epictetus, Nicholas P. White, trans. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983). If you enjoyed the Epictetus selection, here is where you can find more.
Epicurus, The Extant Remains, C. Bailey, trans. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926). For those who wish to read more from Epicurus.
John Gaskin, ed., The Epicurean Philosophers (Rutland, Vt.: Charles Tuttle Co., 1995). A comprehensive collection of their surviving works.
J. Gould, The Development of Plato’s Ethics (London: Cambridge University Press, 1955). Explains the important principles and concepts in Plato’s ethics.
E. Hamilton and H. Cairns, eds., The Collected Dialogues of Plato (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1961). This, as we said before, is what you need to acquaint yourself firsthand with Plato’s dialogues. Be sure to read The Republic. The other dialogues especially relevant to ethics are Gorgias, Meno, and Philebus.
W. F. R. Hardie, Aristotle’s Ethical Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968). There are several reliable books on Aristotle’s ethics. This is one of the most popular.
R. M. Hare, The Language of Morals (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952). An important treatise on the logic of moral discourse.
R. D. Hicks, Stoic and Epicurean (New York: Russell and Russell, 1962). Chapters 3, 4, and 5 are especially relevant to our discussion here.
Hildegard of Bingen, Book of Divine Works, Matthew Fox, ed. (Santa Fe, N.M.: Bear & Co., 1987).
Hildegard of Bingen, Scivias, Bruce Hozeki, trans. (Santa Fe, N.M.: Bear & Co., 1986).
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, J. C. A. Gaskin, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Includes annotations and an introduction by the editor.
David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, Tom L. Beauchamp, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Hume’s major work on ethics.
Terrence Irwin, Plato’s Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). An analysis.
Immanuel Kant, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, R. P. Wolff, ed. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969). Contains Kant’s most important moral philosophy together with commentary by Kant on assorted problems.
S. Korner, Kant (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1955). See Chapters 6 and 7. A standard work on Kant.
Hugh La Folette, ed., The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory 2nd edition, forthcoming (New York: Blackwell, 2013). Survey of the major issues in contemporary moral philosophy.
A. A. Long, Hellenistic Philosophy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986). A readable account of Epicureanism, Skepticism, and Stoicism.
A. A. Long and P. N. Sedley, eds., The Hellenistic Philosophers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Translations of texts from the Stoic, Epicurean, and Skeptic schools of thought.
J. S. Mill, On Liberty and Other Essays, John Gray, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). The other essays include Utilitarianism, Considerations on Representative Government, and The Subjection of Women.
J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, Roger Crisp, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Uses the 1871 edition of Mill’s text, the last edition to be published in Mill’s lifetime.
Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, Marion Faber and Robert C. Holub, eds. and trans. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). A new translation, with an introduction by an eminent Nietzsche scholar.
James Rachels, The Right Thing to Do, Basic Readings in Moral Philosophy 6th edition(New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011). A selection of readings in moral philosophy from some of the great historical figures.
Betty Radice, trans., The Letters of Abelard and Heloise Revised edition (New York: Penguin Books, 2004).
John Rawls, Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy, Barbara Herman, ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: HarvardUniversity Press, 2000). Lectures on the history of moral philosophy by one of the leading philosophers of our times.
W. D. Ross, Kant’s Ethical Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954). Brief; excellent.
Nancy Sherman, The Fabric of Character, Aristotle’s Theory of Virtue (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). Explains and examines Aristotle’s theory of virtue.
Henry Sidgwick, Outlines of the History of Ethics (Boston: Beacon, 1960) and The Methods of Ethics (New York: Dover, 1974). These are classic works in ethics. Many standard ethical concepts, principles, and distinctions originated with Sidgwick, and his treatment of utilitarianism is complete and penetrating.
Mary Ellen Waithe, A History of Women Philosophers, vol. 2, Medieval, Renaissance, and Enlightenment Women Philosophers: 500–1600 (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989).
Moore, Philosophy, 9e SG-10 | 1