Chapter 1: Origins of a New Society, to 1754

Chapter 1: "Origins of a New Society, to 1754"

The North American continent was unknown to Europeans prior to 1492, though scholars have found evidence of early Viking voyages to the North American continent. Humans had settled the continent 15,000-30,000 years before the arrival of Christopher Columbus. According to your textbook, "today's Native American is a descendant of these first migrants to the Americas" Native Americans lived close to the land and established culture groups based on common language, religious beliefs, customs, and kinship. They established trading routes. Warfare occasionally plagued the tribes.

The EuropeanAge of Explorationand the desire to find a suitable passage to the Orient spurred the voyages of explorers and adventurers who eventually "discovered" the lands along the western edge of the Atlantic Ocean. As Europeans began to emerge from the Middle Ages around 1200 AD, they developed renewed interest in the world around them. Christian crusaders traveled to the Holy Lands between 1096 and 1291 and returned to Europe with rich fabrics, jewels, spices like pepper, ginger, and nutmeg, and new fruits like oranges and dates. Europeans quickly developed a taste for these treasures of the Orient.

As theAge of Renaissance(rebirth) began to spread throughout Europe, new ways of thinking about the world emerged. Europeans were still intensely interested in the wealth of the Orient. The monarchs of the European nations encouraged profitable trade with the Asian countries. They also encouraged scientists to develop and improve technologies needed for successful voyages to the Far East. Thus, the Age of Exploration developed in the early 1400s. Portugal became a leader in this new age, as did Spain and Italy. Many explorers made their marks upon the known world of the Europeans, but none has had so lasting an effect as that of the Italian who sailed for Spain, Christopher Columbus.

TheAge of Discoveryled to the revelation of a whole new world. Columbus was the first European to sail west across the Atlantic, set foot on the Caribbean islands, and meet the natives living there. He would eventually become Governor of present-day Hispaniola and make four other voyages to the Americas. These lands of the new world would become the "Americas," named for Italian seaman Amerigo Vespucci. The European encounters in the Americas would lead to the "Columbian Exchange," a new time of continental exchange between Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Eventually, explorers would span the globe and radically change the nature of cultural exchanges between the continents.

Europeans embarked upon a quest to establish colonies in the Americas in order to obtain raw materials and create a market for the products made by their mother countries. Other objectives included conversion of the Native Americans to Christianity and the acquisition of gold, silver, gems, and other valuable resources. The English would concentrate on the North Atlantic coastline, while Spain developed colonies in the south and southwest. France began to search for trading opportunities in the northeast and along the waterways of present day Canada and the Great Lakes region.

The English colonies began to develop cultural and economic differences due to geographic variables and the philosophical backgrounds of the major colonizers. These American colonies prospered in business, trade, agriculture, and commerce, much of it without interference from England. Some colonies encountered many conflicts with Native Americans, while others engaged in the practice of enslaving Africans for forced labor on plantations. England's relationship with the colonies was based on the theory ofmercantilism, which encouraged exploiting the colonies and maintaining a favorable balance of trade.

Chapter 2: "Balancing Liberty and Order, 1753-1820"

As the colonies prospered, so did their feelings of independence from their mother country, England. Rivalry between the British and the French for control of the North American continent eventually led to theFrench and Indian War, known as theThirty Years Waron the European continent. This war led to an unwelcome change in British policy toward its colonies. Resentment against these changes, as well as growing ideas about equality and self-government, led to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. As a result of this war, the American colonies became the 13 United States of America. After the War for Independence was won, a plan for government, called theArticles of Confederation, was developed, which proved to be ineffectual and weak. A Constitutional Convention was held in 1787 to amend or revise the Articles. Eventually an entirely new plan was written involving many compromises between different factions of the convention. The result was theUnited States Constitution, which included many enlightened ideas about separation of power, checks and balances, representative government, and civil rights. Political parties developed soon after the ratification of the Constitution, which led to a peaceful exchange of political power through the election process. This was a very important component of this new political experiment in the United States and somewhat unusual in the world prior to this era.

The United States' population continued to grow and expand westward. TheLouisiana Purchasein 1803 doubled the size of the country and opened vast areas of land for settlement. Trouble continued between the British and the United States as a result of British and French warships harassing American trading vessels. War against the British in 1812 came as the American Congress blamed British encouragement for the Indian troubles on the frontier. This war would become an important test of American national resolve.

Chapter 3: "An Emerging New Nation, 1783-1861"

The American movement west continued to be an important example of the American cultural characteristics of courage, determination, and practical know-how. Americans were determined to control the continent from coast to coast in a philosophy known asmanifest destiny. The United States expanded into Florida, Texas, and Oregon through annexation and treaty. Americans pursued self-improvement and improved technology for industry and commerce. The American will and American inventiveness seemed to know no limits. Many new inventions grew out of the AmericanIndustrial Revolution. By the mid- 1800s, manufacturing and banking expanded the United States economy. Thefree enterprise systemencouraged capital investments and the growth of United States business.

In the early 19th century a French political thinker and philosopher named Alexis de Tocqueville traveled throughout America. He observed many things about the United States that made it different from Europe. The market revolution, Western expansion and Jacksonian democracy had all recently made their impact on the United States shortly before de Tocqueville arrived. De Tocqueville publishedDemocracy in Americain 1835 in an effort to help the people of France gain a better understanding of the American constitutional republic. InDemocracy in Americade Tocqueville identified five values crucial to the success of the American constitutional republic. These values wereliberty,egalitarianism(a belief in human equality),individualism(a theory expressing the importance of individual initiative, action, and interests),populism(a movement claiming to represent the common people), andlaissez-faire(a system of the government keeping its hands out of the economy). These five values were a dramatic departure from the governments of Europe at the time.

Northern and Southern economies developed differently. The Northern economy was based on industry and manufacturing, while the Southern economy was based on agriculture. Reform movements arose in the 1800s as a result of religious and philosophical movements. The abolitionist movement to end slavery centered in the north and included both whites and free African Americans, like Lloyd Garrison and Fredrick Douglas. Reform movements included fights for women's rights, especiallysuffrage(the right to vote).

Eventually conflicts over the slavery issue spread to the western frontiers, which resulted in theCompromise of 1850and theKansas-Nebraska Act. Tensions continued to grow between the sections of the United States. After the presidential election of 1860, which Abraham Lincoln won, the southern supporters of slavery called for the South to secede, or leave the union. They supported theNullification Act, which promoted the states' rights idea that federal laws that hurt or discriminated against a state did not need to be obeyed. In February of 1861, delegates from seven southern states voted to form a new country, the Confederate States of America.

Chapter 4: "The Civil War, 1861-1865"

TheCivil War, or theWar Between the States, began with the Confederate attack on Ft. Sumter, South Carolina, in April of 1861. President Lincoln felt that he had no choice but to declare the Confederate states to be in rebellion. In the last lesson, we discussed the differences that had developed between the North and South. These differences caused a total breakdown of the Union.

What advantages do you think each side of the conflict felt they had? The North had an overwhelming edge in wealth and population. They also had a decided advantage in industrial strength and raw materials. It had about 90% of the nation's factories and a much better system of transportation. On the other hand, the South believed they were defending their homes against invaders. Southerners felt that they were defending their moral right to conduct their affairs as they saw fit and that it would be of benefit to their economic livelihood.

Most people believed that the Civil War would not last more than a few months. Thousands of volunteers rushed to join up on both sides. Young men from all walks of life left to join the army. The Union plan was for the Union army to sweep into the South and take the capital at Richmond, Virginia, and put a quick end to the rebellion. The South's plan was to wear down the Union army by inflicting massive losses and to draw the Union forces deep into the South where supplying the army could be a problem. However, this plan for a war of attrition was not successful because of the superior ability of the Union to produce materials needed for warfare and to supply its troops.

On July 16, 1861, Union General Irvin McDowell marched his hastily organized troops to an important railroad junction at Manassas, just southwest of Washington, D.C. General P.G.T. Beauregard, the man responsible for capturing Fort Sumter, led the Confederate army. They were camped along a small creek calledBull Run. The two armies met on July 21. Northern spectators, including news reporters, some carrying picnic lunches, came out to watch the battle. The Union army broke through first, but the Confederates stopped them and drove them back in a panic. It soon became apparent that this was not to be the Union triumph that was expected. By late afternoon, trainloads of fresh Confederate troops began to arrive and the Union soldiers fell back. The retreat soon disintegrated into a panic as the troops dropped their weapons and ran north. The bystanders were sometimes caught in the middle of this hasty retreat adding to the chaos of the scene. The first major battle of the Civil War was over, with casualties on both sides.

Historians have made much over the decades about why the Confederate army didn't continue its pursuit of the Union army and chase them all the way to Washington, D.C., which was poorly defended at the time. What reasons might you give for this apparent missed opportunity? The Confederate generals did not feel prepared to go into Washington at the time and so fell back to regroup and continue to train and supply their troops. We can only speculate what differences would have been made had another strategy been chosen.

The prospect of war is always traumatic, but it's very hard for us to imagine the tremendous costs involved in this war. Neither side won a quick victory. The South felt that if they could fight a defensive war and drag the war out, the North would grow tired of the struggle and let the southern states go on their own way. Union planners knew they had to aggressively attack the South. Their strategy was to squeeze the life out of the Confederacy and force them back into the Union. The Union navy blockaded the southern ports. How would the South get supplies from Europe, as it had hoped, if the ports were blocked?

During the early years of the war, the South seemed to be more victorious.General Robert E. Leewas able to inflict defeat after defeat upon the Union army. But when Lee tried to invade the north, the Union won an important victory at Sharpsburg, Maryland, atAntietam Creek, in September of 1862. Both sides suffered heavy losses at Antietam, and people on both sides were becoming concerned about the amount of money and lives the war was costing.

The Confederate army was feeling the effects of the Union blockade as Lee marched north into Pennsylvania in search of supplies for his troops. They arrived inGettysburg, where rumor had it that a supply of shoes was stored in a warehouse. Troops encountered Union forces and fought skirmishes on the outskirts of the town of Gettysburg. This meeting would turn into the greatest battle of the Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg. During this three-day battle, the Union army suffered over 25,000 casualties while the Confederate forces had about 28,000 casualties. On July 4, General Lee and the Confederates made their retreat back into Virginia.

Though the abolition of slavery was something that many people felt was critical to the successful resolution of the war, President Lincoln did not make it a part of his early war strategy. The fighting of the Civil War was more about economic issues and bringing the rebellious South back into the Union than the ending of slavery. After Gettysburg, Congress brought a great deal of pressure for the slaves to be declared free. At first, Lincoln resisted this pressure, but soon he agreed. TheEmancipation Proclamationwas issued on January 1, 1863, stating that all the slaves living in areas in rebellion against the United States government were to be free. The North hoped that freeing the slaves would also weaken the Confederacy and bring a swift end to the war. The proclamation did not bring an immediate end to slavery in the United States, but most anti-slavery supporters were pleased with this action.

By 1864, the southern strategy was simply to hold on and try to keep the Union forces out of Richmond, the Confederate capital. President Lincoln orderedGeneral Ulysses S. Grantto take command of the Union forces, and he then placedGeneral William Tecumseh Shermanin charge in the west. The South was running short of supplies and soldiers, and the superior numbers and supplies of the North were now becoming apparent. As General Grant's army chased General Lee, Sherman moved south to the city of Atlanta. The city was under siege throughout the summer, and by September, the Confederates left Atlanta to General Sherman. Sherman next led his troops south through Georgia, cutting a path of destruction that left the most productive parts of the state in ruins. On December 21, the Union army marched into Savannah on the coast, and Sherman's"March to the Sea"was complete. This action is still a sensitive topic in Georgia today, and you can often find people who talk about the March to the Sea as being the worst atrocity ever inflicted on Americans.

In February of 1865, Sherman's forces left Savannah and headed to South Carolina, the heart of the Confederacy. By April 1865, it was apparent that the Confederate army was on its last breath. Lee's troops entered the small Virginia town ofAppomattox Court Houseon April 9, where they were surrounded by Union forces. That afternoon, Lee and Grant met in a private residence where General Lee quietly surrendered to General Grant.

Just a few weeks after Lee's surrender, President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., by the disgruntled southern sympathizer,John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln died before the next morning. The country was now in mourning for the loss of a great leader, the loss of so many of its young men, and the loss of the American Union. The challenge of restoring the country would be a tremendous one and require all the strength and resourcefulness of its leaders. Vice President Andrew Johnson, who took Lincoln's place as President, developed a plan for reconstruction based on preliminary plans set forth by Lincoln before his death.

Chapter 5: "Reconstruction, 1865-1877"

As the Union leaders under President Johnson began to work on a plan to restore the Union, the South was also faced with rebuilding and restoring its shattered cities and countryside. Following the ideas set forth by Lincoln prior to the end of the war,Presidential Reconstructioncalled for the pardon of southerners who would swear allegiance to the Union, declare the secession void, abolish slavery, and repudiate the Confederate debt. This was considered to be a very lenient plan for bringing the southern rebels back into the Union. The idea was to forgive the southern states and bring about a restoration of the Union quickly.