Ch 11 Power and political behavior
Concept of Power
Power - the ability to influence another person
Influence - the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, and feelings of another person
Authority - the right to influence another person
Zone of Indifference
The range in which attempts to influence a person will be perceived as legitimate & will be acted on without a great deal of thought
Managers should aim to expand this zone of indifference
Sources of Organizational Power: Interpersonal
Reward Power - agent’s ability to control the rewards that the target wants
Coercive Power - agent’s ability to cause an unpleasant experience for a target
Legitimate Power - agent and target agree that agent has influential rights, based on position and mutual agreement
Referent Power - based on interpersonal attraction; charismatic
Expert Power - agent has knowledge target needs
Which Power is Most Effective? EXPERT POWER
•Strong relationship to performance & satisfaction
•Transfers vital skills, abilities, and knowledge within the organization
•Employees internalize what they observe & learn from managers they consider “experts”
Information Power
Information Power - access to and control over important information
•Formal/informal position in communication network
•Interpreting information when passing it on (the spin)
•Can flow upward, downward,
and laterally
Two Faces of Power
Personal power – negative; for personal gain
Social power – positive; creates motivation and accomplishes group goals
Sources of Organizational Power: Intergroup
•Control of critical resources
•Control of strategic contingencies - activities that other groups need to complete their tasks
Ways groups hold power over other groups (strategic contingency)
–Ability to cope with uncertainty
–High degree of centrality - functionality central to organization’s success
–Nonsubstitutability - group’s activities are indispensable
Power Analysis: A Broader View
Coercive power- threat, punishment , fear
Utilitarian Power- rewards and benefits
Normative power- influence using member desire to belong
Alienative membership- members are hostile, negative, don’t want to be there
Calculative membership- members weigh benefits and limits
Moral membership= members have positive organizational feelings; self denial for org.
Etzioni’s Power Analysis
Coercive power- Alienative membership
Utiliatarian power- Calculative membership
Normative power- Moral membership
Kanter’s Symbols of Power
•Ability to intercede for someone in trouble
•Ability to get placements for favored employees
•Exceeding budget limitations
•Procuring above-average raises for employees
•Getting items on meeting agendas
•Access to early information
•Having top managers seek out their opinion
Kanter’s Symbols of Powerlessness
Top execs- budget cuts, punishment, top down communication
Staff professionals- resistance to change; turf protection
Managers- external attribution – blame game
First line supervisor- micro-manage; inflexible; do jon vs train his/her staff
Korda’s Power Symbols – furnishings, access, time
Korda’s Power Symbols
Power - there are more people who inconvenience themselves on your behalf than there are people on whose behalf you would inconvenience yourself
Status - a person’s relative standing in a group based on prestige and deference
Political Behavior in Organizations
Organizational Politics - the use of power and influence in organizations
Political Behavior - actions not officially sanctioned by an organization that are taken to influence others in order to meet one’s personal goals
Conditions Encouraging
Political Activity
•Unclear goals
•Autocratic decision making
•Ambiguous lines of authority
•Scarce resources
•Uncertainty
Influence tactics
Most Effective Tactic:
Influence by Rational Persuasion- logical arguments and facts
Effective Tactic:
Influence by Ingratiation- put person in good mood
Frequently Used Tactic:
Influence by Consultation- participative
Frequently Used Tactic:
Influence by Inspirational Appeals- emotional proposal
Political Skill - ability to get things done through favorable interpersonal relationships outside of formally prescribed organizational mechanisms
–Social astuteness
–Interpersonal influence
–Networking ability
–Sincerity
Managing Political Behavior
•Maintain open communication
•Clarify performance expectations
•Use participative management
•Encourage cooperation among work groups
•Manage scarce resources well
•Provide a supportive organizational climate
Empowerment- Sharing Power so individuals learn to believe in their ability to do their job
Empowerment’s Four Dimensions
Meaning, Competence, Self determination, Impact
Guidelines for Empowering
•Express confidence in employees
•Set high performance expectations
•Create opportunities for participative decision making
•Remove bureaucratic constraints that stifle autonomy
•Set inspirational and meaningful goals
Finkelstein:
Why Executives Fail
•See themselves and their companies as dominant, without peers
•Think they have all the answers
•Eliminate those not 100% behind them
•Rely on what worked for them in the past
•No clear boundaries between personal interests and corporate interests
Using Power Effectively
•Use power in ethical ways
•Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
•Seek out jobs that allow you to develop your power skills
•Use power tempered by maturity and self-control
•Accept that influencing people is an important part of the management job
Ch 12 Leadership and followership
Leadership - the process of guiding & directing the behavior of people in the work environment
Formal leadership - the officially sanctioned leadership based on the authority of a formal position
Informal leadership - the unofficial leadership accorded to a person by other members of the organization
Followership - the process of being guided and directed by a leader in the work environment
Kotter: Management and Leadership
Management
–Controls complexity
–Reduces uncertainty
–Stabilizes organizations
Management Characteristics
–Planning and budgeting
–Organizing and staffing
–Controlling and problem solving
Leadership Characteristics
–Set direction for the organization
–Use communication to align people with that direction
–Motivate people to action through empowerment and basic need gratification
Leadership vs. Management
Leaders and managers
–Have distinct personalities
–Make different contributions
Early Trait Theories
•Distinguished leaders by
–Physical attributes
–Personality characteristics
–Social skills and speech fluency
–Intelligence and scholarship
–Cooperativeness
–Insight
Leadership Behavioral Theory: Lewin Studies
Autocratic- directive, assertive, comtrolling, rule enforcement; not employee centered
Democratic – collaborative, reciprocal, interactive; followers have influence
Laissez-faire- no responsibility; creates chaos
Leadership Grid - an approach to understanding a leader’s or manager’s concern for results (production) and concern for people
Organization manager 5,5 – middle of the road – no commitments
Country Club 1,9 – creates happy work environment even when uncalled for- afraid of conflict
Authority Compliance 9,1 – emphasizes production
Team Manager 9,9 – ideal/best – build productive committed teams
Impoverished – 1,1- just enough effort to get by
Paternalistic 9,9 – promises rewards and threatens punishment
Opportunistic- all over the grid- “what’s in it for me” Manager (Opp) - a leader whose style aims
to maximize self-benefit
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory - classifies the favorableness of the leader’s situation
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership- leadership style based on follower and workplace charctaristics
Leader-Member Exchange theory -
In groups and out groups of subordinates affect employee outcomes
Substitutes for leadership
•Satisfying task
•Performance feedback
•Employee’s high skill level
•Team cohesiveness
•Organization’s formal
controls
Transformational – inspiration, excitement
Transactional- rewards and punishment
Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic Leadership - a leader’s use of personal abilities & talents in order to have profound & extraordinary effects on followers
•Charismatic leaders use referent power
•Potential for high achievement and
performance
•Potential for destructive and harmful courses of action
Authentic Leadership
Authentic Leadership – a style of leadership that includes transformational, charismatic, or transactional approaches as the situation demands – also transparency
Emotional Intelligence
•Ability to recognize and manage emotion in oneself and others
•Affects how leaders make decisions
Trust- important to build with employees
Willingness to be vulnerable to the actions of another
Servant Leadership- serving others
Five Types of Followers
Alienated- independent to detriment
Sheep- passive and dependent
Yes people- active but do no think critically; dependent
Effective follower- independent, active, critical thinkers
Survivors- Chameleon, not committed, active when watched
Dynamic Follower
•Responsible steward of his or her job
•Effective in managing the relationship with the boss
•Practices self-management
Cultural Differences in Leadership exist
Guidelines for Leadership
•Different leadership situations call for different leadership talents & behaviors
•Good leaders are likely to be good followers
Ch 13 Conflict and Negotiation
Nature of Organizational Conflict
Conflict - any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition for two or more parties
Functional Conflict - a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people
Dysfunctional Conflict - an unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more people
Consequences of Conflict
Positive – new ideas, creativity, motivates change, promotes org. vitality, establishes identity, safety valve for problems
Negative- diverts form task, threatens psychological well being, wastes resources, negative climate, breaks down group cohesion, hostility, aggressive behavior
Diagnosing Conflict
•Are the parties approaching the
conflict from a hostile standpoint?
•Is the outcome likely to be a negative
one for the organization?
•Do the potential losses of the parties exceed any potential gain?
•Is energy being diverted from goal accomplishment?
Causes of Conflict in Organizations- structural and personal
Globalization & Conflict- cultural differences
Forms of Conflict in Organizations
Interorganizational Conflict - conflict that occurs between two or more organizations
Intergroup Conflict - conflict that occurs between groups or teams in an organization
Intragroup Conflict - conflict that occurs within groups or teams
Interpersonal – between 2 or more people
Intrapersonal – within an individual
Forms of Intrapersonal Conflict
Interrole Conflict - a person’s experience of conflict among the multiple roles in his/her life
Intrarole Conflict - conflict that occurs within a single role, such as when a person receives conflicting messages from role senders about how to perform a certain role
Person-role Conflict - conflict that occurs when an individual is expected to perform behaviors in a certain role that conflict with his/her personal values
Resolving Intrapersonal Conflict
Use self-analysis and diagnosis
•Does the organization values match my own?
•Ask role senders what is expected
•Use political skills to
buffer negative effects
of role conflict stress
An Organizational Member’s Role Set
Outside – client, supplier, potential employee
Inside- Supervisor, colleague, employees and their colleagues
Power Relationships in Organizations
Equal vs equal; hi vs lo; hi vs mid vs lo
Defense Mechanisms
Aggressive Mechanisms
Fixation – an individual keeps up a dysfunctional behavior that obviously will not solve the conflict
Displacement – an individual directs his or her anger toward someone who is not the source of the conflict
Negativism – a person responds with pessimism to any attempt at solving a problem
Compromise Mechanisms
Compensation - an individual attempts to make up for a negative situation by devoting himself or herself to another pursuit with increased vigor
Identification - an individual patterns his or her behavior after another’s
Rationalization - a compromise mechanism characterized by trying to justify one’s behavior by constructing bogus reasons for it
Withdrawal Mechanisms
Flight/Withdrawal - entails physically escaping a conflict (flight) or psychologically escaping (withdrawal)
Conversion - emotional conflicts are expressed in physical symptoms
Fantasy - provides an escape from a conflict through daydreaming
Ineffective Techniques for Dealing with Conflict
Nonaction- Character assasination- secrecy- due process nonaction- administrative orbiting
Effective Techniques for Dealing with Conflict
Superordinate goals- confronting and negotiating- change structure- expand resources- change personnel
Negotiation
Negotiation - a joint process of finding a mutually acceptable solution to a complex conflict
Conflict Management Styles
Avoiding - deliberate decision to take no action on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict
Accommodating - concern that the other party’s goals be met but relatively unconcerned with getting own way
Competing - satisfying own interests at other party’s expense
Compromising - each party gives up something to reach a solution
Collaborating - arriving at a solution satisfactory to all through open and thorough discussion
Be assertive and cooperative to collaborate
Creating a Conflict-Positive Organization
Value diversity- take stock- seek mutual benefits- empower employees
Ch 14 Jobs and the Design of Work
Job Compared to Work
Job - a set of specified work and task activities that engage an individual in an organization
–Organizational position – a job in relation to other parts of the organization
–Career – a sequence of job experiences over time
Work – mental or physical activity that has productive results
Meaning of Work - the way a person interprets and understands the value of work as part of life
Scientific Management- Taylor, Smith
Emphasizes work simplification (standardization and the narrow, explicit specification of task activities for workers)
Job Enlargement - a method of job design that increases the number of activities in a job to overcome the boredom of overspecialized work
Job Rotation - a variation of job enlargement in which workers are exposed to a variety of specialized jobs over time
Cross-Training - a variation of job enlargement in which workers are trained in
different specialized tasks or
activities
Job Enrichment - designing or redesigning jobs by incorporating motivational factors into them
Job Characteristics
Model -
a framework for
understanding
person-job fit through
the interaction of core job
dimensions with critical psychological
states within a person
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - the survey instrument designed to measure the elements in the Job Characteristics Model
Skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback will lead to positive outcomes- less absenteeism, motivation, performance, satisfaction because it affects employee growth needs (psychological states)
Engagement - the expression of oneself as one performs in work or other roles
Full engagement requires the strategic management of one’s energy in response to the environment
Social Information Processing
(SIP) model
SIP Model - a model that suggests that the important job factors depend in part on what others tell a person about the job
•Four premises
•1) people provide cues to understanding
• the work environment
•2) people help us judge our jobs
•3) people tell us how they see our jobs
•4) people’s positive & negative feedback
• help us understand our feelings about our jobs
Work Design and Well-Being:
To increase control in work organizations
•Give workers the opportunity to control aspects of work & workplace
•Design machines and tasks with optimal response times and/or ranges
•Implement performance-monitoring systems as source of worker feedback
Work Design and Well-Being:
To reduce uncertainty
•Provide employees with timely and complete work information needed
•Make clear and unambiguous work assignments
•Improve communication at shift change time
•Increase employee access to information sources
Work Design and Well-Being:
To manage conflict
•Use participative decision making to reduce conflict
•Use supportive supervisory styles to resolve conflict
•Provide sufficient resource availability to meet work demands, thus preventing conflict
Contemporary Issues in
Design of Work
•Telecommuting - employees work at home or in other locations geographically separate from their company’s main location
•Alternative work patterns
–Job Sharing - an alternative work pattern in which there is more than one person occupying a single job
–Four day work week
–Flextime - an alternative work pattern that enables employees to set their own daily work schedules
Contemporary Issues in
Design of Work
•Technology at work
–Virtual Office - a mobile platform of computer, telecommunication, and information technology and services
–Technostress - the stress cause by new and advancing technologies in the workplace
•Task Revision - the modification of incorrectly specified roles or jobs
•Skill development
Counter-role behavior- deviant behavior in a correctly or incorrectly defined role
The Future is to provide flexibility
Chapter 15 Organizational Design and Structure
Organizational Design
Organizational Design - the process of constructing and adjusting an organization’s structure to achieve its goals.
Diferentiation- how to divide work; creates comlexity
Horizontal Differentiation
•The degree of differentiation between organizational subunits
•Based on employee’s specialized knowledge, education, or training
Vertical Differentiation
•The difference in authority and responsibility in the organizational hierarchy
•Greater in tall, narrow organizations than in flat, wide organizations
Spatial Differentiation
•Geographic dispersion of an organization’s offices, plants, and personnel – globalization- expatriates
•Complicates organizational design, but may simplify goal achievement or protection
Integration- process of coordinating parts of an organization
•Designed to achieve unity among individuals and groups
•Supports a state of dynamic equilibrium - elements of organization are integrated, balanced
Vertical Integration
•Hierarchical referral
•Rules and procedures
•Plans and schedules
•Positions added to the organization structure
•Management information systems
Horizontal Integration
•Liaison roles
•Task forces
•Integrator positions
•Teams
Design dimensions- related to size of organization
Formalization- degree of regulations and procedures
Centralization- degree that decision are made at top
Hierarchy of authority- degree of vertical integration
Specialization- degree of expertise and narrowly defined roles
Complexity- degree of differentiaition
Standardization- degree of routinization
Structural configurations
Simple- centralized; emphasis on upper echelo and direct supervision
Machine bureaucracy- moderately decentralized; emphasis on technical staff and standardization of work processes
Adhocracy- selectively decentralized; emphasis on supprot staff and mutual adjustment
Divisional form- moderately decentralized; emphasis on middle level and standardization of outputs
Professional bureaucracy- decentralized; emphasis on operating level and standardization of skills