SPECIAL SUBJECT INTRODUCTORY LECTURE

The centrality of the idea of the constitution – idea of a mixed and balanced constitution established in Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689. It was mixed because it was a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy – whereas France seen as absolute monarchy. It was balanced in the form of king, lords and commons - because these three elements counteracted each other – prevented degeneration into tyranny. BUT – constitution unwritten – different to France and America

These assumptions widely held by late C18 – Whigs fervently clung to them, and even most radicals espoused them – but the worry was always that one element was being over-balanced.

King

Key theme in practice of C18 – declining personal powers of king – beginning had a fair amount of control – by end much less – king had to govern by law and raise tax through Parliament. Monarch still made appointments to government – in practice could appoint only from those who could command majority – so in fact choice limited – tried to pick and choose in 1760s but gave up by 1780s – king’s control over how they exercised business limited – so might express an opinion but ministers pursued their course. Had some control over other appointments eg clerical, and took some interest in foreign policy.

HOWEVER by 1780s king’s powers in practice fairly limited and real business of government done by Pitt. The political power of the monarchy was constrained BUT not everyone believed this – Whigs from 1760s persistently and genuinely feared there were plots by ministers to increased king’s power – Dunning’s motion in 1780

Parliament

Parliament was what mattered – members of government sat in Parliament – had to control parliament and had to enjoy support of Parliament. Ministers themselves – used of patronage to shore up support – parties looser then so support more fluid. In total around 100 professional politicians at any time during C18 – ambitious men who wanted office.

Then the moderately well organised grouping of Whigs – Rockingham and Fox – out of office for most of this period – natural supporters of 100-maximum 200 men.

The rest of the MPs were the Independents – backbenchers – disliked party – disdained office – generally natural supporters of incumbent king’s government – local mindset – but at times would oppose government, eg bringing down Lord North in 1782. These people suspicious of change and new ideas – would gravitate to Pitt strongly in 1790s and deny whigs much chance of support.

Lords less important than Commons at this time – but both houses dominated by aristocrats and gentry – narrow social range – mid c18th, ½ of MPs were sons of MPs and 400 related to MPs. Only wealthy could sit in Parliament.

Parliament’s business less broad ranging than today – central government business is FINANCIAL, COMMERCIAL and FOREIGN. The rest of the business – eg social matters – handled by backbench MP responding to local demands – eg highways, enclosures etc. Localist nature of C18 important. But MPs supposed to represent whole nation not just constituents.

Elections

Classic view of C18 = electoral corruption – this the main complaint of late C18 radicals – idea that whole system dominated and controlled by narrow elite – in practical terms it was though populace who couldn’t vote did find some ways to participate.

558 MPs representing England, Wales and Scotland– majority in England, and even there within south and east – 489 members across 245 mainly double member constituencies. 40 county constituencies, thus returning 80 MPs; 196 boroughs of two members. The bulk of the commons were therefore returned for boroughs – often small

County size = average 2000-300 electors, though Yorkshire enormous – but compare Lancashireat 8000 voters.

Rutlandsmallest 800 voters. In all countries 40s freeholder.

Boroughs more varied – size and type of elector. Average 200-300 but Westminster large at 12000

Gatton had 2 electors; Old Sarum had 7 voters.

Some boroughs only corporation can vote. Various different voting rights – will examine more later – but in many places very restricted.

Even if you have vote – very few elections contested – expensive – so best avoided. Until early C18 average number of contests during general election only 60-70 –

many seats controlled by either Treasury on behalf of government to bolster support – or by patrons wanting supporters – small electors easy to control – but even larger seats see attempts to control, bribe and corrupt voters.

In 1793 it was estimated that 92 MPs were nominated by peers, and 80 by commoners, with another 72 MPs returned by the influence of peers, and 57 by commoners.

Localism

C18 sense of localism – state more concerned external and trade matters – did not and would not have interfered closely in local life – fairly decentralised

at county level – Lord Lieutenant and Justices of the Peace. Defence and justice – LL organise county militia and appoints JPs – JPs do real work of local government – propertied men – Anglican – appointed for life – administer justice – appointed people to deal with poor relief, gaols etc

at parish level – smallest unit of administration – place where most people feel authority - governed in open way –fairly representative if you pay rates – right to vote at vestry – meet once a year min. elect local officers eg churchwarden, helps appoint overseers of poor and also collect tax – unpaid work – each parish 2-4 churchwardens

at borough level – certain towns – autonomy from county - controlled by a mayor, and alderman and common councillors. Deals with similar issues – markets, tolls, debt etc – sometimes close and narrow sometimes more open.

War and Finance

Lots of work on C18 state as war machine – geared towards fighting wars – most recently 7 yrs war in late 50s and early 60s – leading to vast acquisition in north America, eg Canada and Florida – success over France – classic enemy – and then again in 1770s in less successful war with American colonies.

Financing war expensive – largely through navy – expensive dockyards – so how to finance it – state develops in C18 new ways to finance war – and this is how citizens end up feeling state more directly in ordinary lives.

Britain had developed very effective system of borrowing and a large national debt – this debt grew extensively in C18 – 1700 = £14m, by 1783 it was £231m. In 1815 it was £744m. But this debt never had to be paid back in one go – investors in debt received fixed interest payments – these funded by annual taxation.

The main forms of tax:

Land tax – launched in 1698, between 1s and 4s in pound on land valued in 1690s – not very accurate tax as values of assessment don’t change – doesn’t take account of land value increase – over C18 revenue from it not very high but stable – hits aristocrats so little interest in increasing it.

Other forms of revenue:

Assessed taxes on visible luxury items, eg houses, windows, servants, carriages etc. Indirect tax of rich – but not very efficient and not reliable

Stamp duty fell on legal documents, newspapers and various forms of financial exchange.

Cutsoms duties – could have been more effective – but corruption in office holders – merchants evade it – so again not effective

Excise – what we would call VAT. Not levied on all items, but list of items grew and contracted – items chosen not to offend too many people eg tea, coffee and chocolate in 1723 – but C18 worried about idea of general excise – tax on all goods – Important point about excise – efficiently collected – so good source of revenue – by 1790s around 70-80% of all state income comes from excise.

Britain heavily taxed nation – key theme for us also – complaints about taxation – recent work shown that the rich not hit really hard, but also that poor excluded from worst – the middling sort hit hardest – they were the ones who ended up paying most for the state and for its wars which seemed to benefit them little. This important because it is middling sorts who from 1760s start to moan about corruption in state, cost of national debt, high taxation – ergo tax and war key complaints of reformers. People who get rich of national debt – fundholders and investors seen as parasitic class – idle – a common C18 theme will see in 1790s

From 1780s growing push to reform state – economical reform – cut back on waste and excess – people to examine public accounts and make savings – Pitt also in 1780s wanted reform – reduce cost of debt – policy of commerce and peace to increase revenue without expense – sinking fund to pay off national debts over time – but all this ruined by war with France which caused spiralling costs again – by end of 1790s had to find new forms of income – income tax – so all his aims of slimmer more efficient state ruined by war.

Religion

The politics of religion also plays a big part in understanding the 1790s –radicals were also critical of a seemingly corrupt Church, while religion could inspire radicals and conservatives alike.

In older works you will find little on religion in C18 other than Methodism – but see EP Thompson – more recently JCD Clark has stressed the importance of religion to everyday life and to politics – he sees it as a much more religious age

Church of England - Anglicanism - official estd religion. Theoretically and legally it was nearly essential you were an Anglican to participate in local and national political life – those who ‘dissented’ such as Protestant dissenters and certainly Catholics excluded. Anglicans therefore are the political, military and judicial elite

At the other level, the local parish is people’s main experience of authority and order – place where conservative, loyalist, hierarchical values promulgated in late C18 – Church has a role in resisting revolution – fear of atheism in France - Anglicanism hence the glue of society – most popular of publications not enlightenment but sermons and other works on duty of man – thinking about religion important to see ways in which C18 conservative – eg Christie.

But Church not perfect – seen often as too close to the State – too subservient – seen as compromised and not totally efficient at administering to needs of the people – some of the supposed problems – non residence of priests and plural holdings – effects of not enough clergymen to go round – too often seen also as younger sons rather than men with a calling – though in practice more opportunities for people to worship than older view suggests –

but some areas have less access and large parishes, especially in north and west country - In Devon in 1779 41% of livings did not have a resident priest. Alan Gilbert has suggested that around a 1000 parishes by 1810 were not attended by an Anglican priest. – Also a need to build new churches in growing areas – especially towns and cities – but this does not happen till later.

But as we said 1780 sees growing signs of change - but signs of change from 1770s and 80s – more high Anglican bishops getting promoted – want to do something about seeming negligence of church – evangelicalism emerging -

Reforming manners theme important – and increases in 1790s – idea to educate and reform the people – popular education with strong religious bent comes to the fore – education previously neglected.

Eerlier in C18 had seen the emergence of Methodism – led by Wesley and Whitfield – a revival within Anglicanism – a more enthusiastic and devotional form of religion – compared to complacency of Anglicanism 0 this appealed very much to poorer classes – field preaching – and had strongest hold in areas where Anglicanism weak.

Methodism viewed with suspicion by many Anglicans – but important to see it within Church – as C18 wears on tensions emerge and by 1790s and Wesley’s death Methodism no longer part of Church – though it agrees on all main points and remains in sympathy with Church.

It has also been argued by EPT in Making that Methodism capitalised on failure of Fr Rev and many radicals who couldn’t change this world politically were led to spiritual change instead.

Other reason for revival within Church are Anglican evangelicals – men like William Wilberforce and women like Hannah More – will encounter both of these later on in the term – not Methodists but inspired by more serious religion – firm belief that if Church is to speak to people it needs to reform itself and be much more concerned with spirituality and faith – they believe in moral reform, biblical education, sabbatarianism etc – they are in one sense reformers – eg slave trade - but in another sense conservative – see French revolution as atheist revolt against God – accept hierarchy and estd order but not always trusted by old fashioned conservatives who see them as meddlesome and distrust their ideas on education.

The other important aspect of religion to consider is old dissent or nonconformity. These were the heirs of puritanism – enemies of church in C17 – granted Toleration – ie limited acceptance to worship at Glorious Revolution – but still officially excluded from office – though occasional conformity got round this – a caste apart – more town based – own chapels and own schools and own academys – often well educated and middling in affluence – more likely to be merchants or involved in professions – not involved in country society

But until 1760s they accept their semi-pariah status fairly quietly – by this time though enlightenement having effect on dissent – rational dissent – JCD Clark sees this as real foundation of radicalism – Price and Priestley – adopted a purer form of Xnty as they see it – Arianism and Socinianism – deny divinity of Christ – deny legitimacy of priesthood – hence implicitly critical of Anglicanism – from 1760s and 1770s a campaign to reform the 39 Articles – essentially the articles of belief of Anglicanism – to liberlaise them – fails – but brings out high Anglican elements in defence and some people leave Church because of its doctrines. Dislike having to pay to support a Church they dissent from

Dissenters generally supporters of Americans in war – see loss of colonies as sign that God favours their views – they hope for political reform and religious reform – key demand in 1780s repeal of T and C acts – denying them office – want to be allowed into state – claim being prejudiced by denying them – our start point in 2 weeks.

So in religious terms tensions reemerging in late C18 – some tension between Anglicans and Methodists but primarily – again – between Anglicans and Dissenters – arguments over theology and the state – high Anglicans unwilling to accept they live in a pluralist society – shore up the true religion – they see dissenters as puritans and revolutionaries = memoires of C17 – but many fail to recognise how widespread dissent – in the broadest sense is – many people not Anglicans

Finally add to this that Catholics also pushing for reforming, especially in Ireland in 1780s and 1790s and thereafter in post-Union Britain

Politics from the 1760s

The transition point in British politics – parliamentary and popular – comes in 1760s – start to see how these constitutional questions become controversial. Formerly George I and II had relied on Whig aristocrats to lead government – George III wanted to be more free – more control over his ministers

This led to period of instability in 1760s – King chosing his ministers but they lack support in Parliament and so his governments weak – George III starts to form a dislike to Whig leaders because they stir up hatred of choices eg Bute

Over 1760s a number of weak governments – but eventually from 1770 seems happy with Lord North – not connected to a faction but able to get enough support from Independents to keep government going; relies on North for next 12 years – also has financial skill and low tax policy to keep them happy.

But during this period seems emergence of new Whig party – faction of Whig figures around Lord Rockingham – they fear Bute and have worries about what George III is planning – concerned that king is abusing his power and being ‘led astray’ by evil counsellors. See themselves as heirs of Glorious Revolution

In the hands of Edmund Burke they argued there is a need for party – idea of party not seen as a good in this period – seen as working against king’s government – but Burke develops the idea of need for permanent party connection as means of preserving the constitution – idea of an opposition – supplies intellectual weight to the Rockinghamite faction which entrenches itself in 1770s and leads directly via Charles James Fox in 1780s into Whig party we shall see in 2 weeks.

However this a period when forces outside Parliament starting to be felt. America emerges as an important issue – not necessary to give details here – suffice to say that from 1760s Britain had started to show interest in exerting parliamentary sovereignty over 13 colonies – it now controls whole of eastern America – formerly neglect. However colonies are fearful of arbitrary control and worried about imposition of Anglicanism – fears of Catholicism being tolerated in Canada – dislike of standing armies – deny legitimacy of Pariament to tax them. America uses a ‘country’ ideology to oppose America – eventually tensions escalate and fears aroused on both sides by 1774 onwards – Thomas Paine becomes one of the earliest to advocate independence and setting up new country with new constitution. Most however want autonomy – even those who oppose North’s policy do not advocate separation.