Beta-Catenin Is a Protein That in Humans and Is Encoded by the CTNNB1 Gene

Beta-catenin is aproteinthat in humans and is encoded by theCTNNB1gene.InDrosophila, the homologous protein is calledarmadillo. Β-catenin is a subunit of thecadherinprotein complex and has been implicated as an integral component in theWnt signaling pathway.

HMP SHUNT

The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway, or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt [HMP shunt]) is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose (5-carbon) sugars.

Protein kinase A is a group ofenzymeswhose activity is dependent on the level ofcyclic AMPin the cell.PKA is also known ascAMP-dependent protein kinase. Protein kinase A has several functions in the cell, including regulation ofglycogen,sugar, andlipidmetabolism. It is important in regulatingcell cycle, along with the proteinCyclin.

Chromosome puffsare diffuse uncoiled regions of the polygene chromosome that are sites ofRNAtranscription. ABalbiani ringis a large chromosome puff.

Cyclic AMP or Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate is the second messenger important in many biological actions at the cellular level. It is the chemical messenger is generated in the cell membrane from Adenosine triphosphate or ATP in response to a signal from the first messenger (Hormone). cAMP is used for intracellular signal transduction in many organisms conveying the cAMP dependent pathway.

Pinopodes are small, finger-like protrusions from the uterine endometrium. They appear between day 19 and day 21ofgestational age. This corresponds to afertilization ageof approximately 5 to 7 days, which corresponds well with the time of implantation. They only persist for 2 to 3 days. The development of them is enhanced byprogesteronebut inhibited byestrogens.

Polytene Chromosome

To increasecellvolume, some specialized cells undergo repeated rounds ofDNA replicationwithoutcell divisioncalled Endomitosis, forming a giantPolytene chromosome. Polytenechromosomesform when multiple rounds of replication produce many sisterchromatidsthat remain synapsed together.

Q Banding

Quinacrine mustard, an alkylating agent, was the first chemical to be used forchromosome banding. T. Caspersson and his colleagues, who developed the technique, noticed that bright and dull fluorescent bands appeared afterchromosomesstained with quinacrine mustard were viewed under a fluorescence microscope.

Central dogma of molecular biology

The central dogma of molecular biology was first enunciated by Francis Crick in 1958 and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970.The central dogma deals with the detailed residue-by-residue transfer of sequential information. It states that information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid. In other words, 'once information gets into protein, it can't flow back to nucleic acid.'

Chaperones

Chaperones are proteins that assist the non-covalent folding/unfolding and the assembly/disassembly of other macromolecular structures, but do not occur in these structures when the latter are performing their normal biological functions. The common perception that chaperones are primarily concerned with protein folding is incorrect. The first protein to be called a chaperone assists the assembly of nucleosomes from folded histones and DNA and such assembly chaperones, especially in the nucleus, are concerned with the assembly of folded subunits into oligomeric structures.

Contig

AContig(fromcontiguous) is a set of overlappingDNAsegments derived from a single genetic source. AContigis also sometimes defined as the DNA sequence reconstructed from a set of overlapping DNA segments.

DNA polymerase

A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that assists in DNA replication. Such enzymes catalyze the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides alongside a DNA strand, which they "read" and use as a template. The newly-polymerized molecule is complementary to the template strand and identical to the template's partner strand.

Initiatior (Inr) motif

The Initiatior (Inr) motif is a DNA transcription promoter that is similar in function to the Pribnow box (for prokaryotes) or the TATA box (for eukaryotes). It has the consensus sequence YYAN(T/A)YY,where Y stands for any pyrimidine (cytosine or thymine). Similarly to the TATA box, the Inr motif facilitates the binding of Transcription Factor II D (TBP).

LINEs

Long interspersed nuclear elements are long DNA sequences (>5kb) that represent reverse-transcribed RNA molecules originally transcribed by RNA polymerase II into mRNA (messenger RNA to be translated into protein on ribosomes).

Pair-Rule Gene

Pair-rule geneis a type ofgeneinvolved in thedevelopmentof thesegmentedembryosofinsects. Pair-rule genes are defined by the effect of amutationin that gene, which causes the loss of the normal developmental pattern inalternating segments.

Reverse transcription

Reverse transcription is the process of making a double stranded DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule from a single stranded RNA (ribonucleic acid) template. It is called reverse transcription as it acts in the opposite or reverse direction to transcription. This idea was very unpopular at first as it contradicted the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology which states DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into proteins. However, in 1970 when the scientists Howard Temin and David Baltimore both independently discovered the enzyme responsible for reverse transcription, named reverse transcriptase, the possibility that genetic information could be passed on in this manner was finally accepted.

Ribozyme

A Ribozyme is an RNA molecule that catalyzes a chemical reaction. Many natural ribozyme catalyze either the hydrolysis of one of their own phosphodiester bonds, or the hydrolysis of bonds in other RNAs, but they have also been found to catalyze the aminotransferase activity of the ribosome.

Sigma factor

A sigma factor (σ factor) is a prokaryotic transcription initiation factor that enables specific binding of RNA polymerase to gene promoters. Different sigma factors are activated in response to different environmental conditions. Every molecule of RNA polymerase contains exactly one sigma factor subunit, which in the model bacterium Escherichia coli is one of those listed below. E. coli has at least eight sigma factors; the number of sigma factors varies between bacterial species. Sigma factors are distinguished by their characteristic molecular weights. For example, σ70 refers to the sigma factor with a molecular weight of 70 kDa.

SINEs

Short interspersed nuclear elements are short DNA sequences (<500 bases) that represent reverse-transcribed RNA molecules originally transcribed by RNA polymerase III into tRNA, rRNA, and other small nuclear RNAs. SINEs do not encode a functional reverse transcriptase protein and rely on other mobile elements for transposition.

TATA box

The TATA box (also called Goldberg-Hogness box) is a DNA sequence (cis-regulatory element) found in the promoter region of most genes in eukaryotes and Archaea. Considered to be the core promoter sequence, it is the binding site of either transcription factors or histones (the binding of a transcription factor blocks the binding of a histone and vice versa) and is involved in the process of transcription by RNA polymerase.

The Pribnow box

The Pribnow box (also known as the Pribnow-Schaller box) is the sequence TATAAT of six nucleotides (thymine-adenine-thymine-etc.) that is an essential part of a promoter site on DNA for transcription to occur in bacteria. It is an idealized or consensus sequence - that is, it shows the most frequently occurring base at each position in a large number of promoters analyzed; individual promoters often vary from the consensus at one or more positions. It is also commonly called the -10 sequence, because it is centered roughly 10 base pairs upstream from the site of initiation of transcription.

Cell signaling

Cell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue homeostasis. Errors in cellular information processing are responsible for diseases such as cancer, autoimmunity, and diabetes. By understanding cell signaling, diseases may be treated effectively and, theoretically, artificial tissues may be yielded.

Cell surface Receptors

A Receptoris aproteinmolecule, embedded in either theplasma membraneor thecytoplasmof a cell, to which one or more specific kinds of signaling molecules may attach. A molecule which binds to a receptor is called aligand, and may be apeptide or other small molecule, such as aneurotransmitter, ahormone, a pharmaceutical drug, or a toxin. Each kind of receptor can bind only certain ligand shapes. Each cell typically has many receptors, of many different kinds.

Endocrine Disruptors

Endocrine disruptors are chemical substances that act on the endocrine system and disrupt its functions. The term Endocrine disruptor was introduced in the Wingspread Conference Centre; Wisconsin in 1991.The work of Theo Colborn showed that the environmental chemicals disturbed the development of endocrine system.Endocrine disruption refers to the fact that there is negative interference or permanent adverse consequences beyond the range of everyday fluctuations of hormone levels.

METAPLASIA

Metaplasia (Greek: "change in form") is the reversible replacement of one differentiated cell type with another mature differentiated cell type. The change from one type of cell to another is generally caused by some sort of abnormal stimulus. In simplistic terms, it is as if the original cells are not robust enough to withstand the new environment, and so they change into another type more suited to the new environment. If the stimulus that caused Metaplasia is removed or ceases, tissues return to their normal pattern of differentiation. Metaplasia is not synonymous with dysplasia and is not considered carcinogenesis. It is also contrasted with heteroplasia, which is the abnormal growth of cytologic and histologic elements without a stimulus.

PYROGENS

Paracetamol is the safest drug used to control temperature. It is called as Antipyretic. When there is infection in the body, the WBC produces chemical called Pyrogens. The pyrogens are responsible for fever. Paracetamol inhibits the production of pyrogens and reduce body temperature. Paracetamol is the diethylated product of the active metabolite of Phenacetin which is now banned. Paracetamol is a para-amino phenol derivative which is N-acetyl-p-aminophenol.

Membrane Receptor Structure

TheT cell receptororTCRis a molecule found on the surface ofT lymphocytes(or T cells) that is, in general, responsible for recognizingantigensbound tomajor histocompatibility complex(MHC) molecules.

It is aheterodimerconsisting of an alpha and beta chain in 95% of T cells, whereas 5% of T cells have TCRs consisting ofgamma and deltachains. Engagement of the TCR with antigen and MHC results in activation of its T lymphocyte through a series of biochemical events mediated by associated enzymes, co-receptors, specialized accessory molecules and activated or released transcription factors.

Secondary messenger system

A secondary messenger system (also known as a second messenger system) is a method of cellular signaling, whereby a diffusable signaling molecule is rapidly generated/released which can then go on to activate effector proteins within the cell to exert a cellular response. Secondary messengers are a component of signal transduction cascades.

Assisted Reproductive Technology-ART

Assisted reproductive technologyis the methods used to achievepregnancyby artificial or partially artificial means. It is reproductive technologyused primarily ininfertilitytreatments.ARTis also used in couples who are discordant for certain communicable diseases, i.e.AIDS, to reduce the risk of infection when a pregnancy is desired. The term also includes any reproductive technique involving a third party e.g. a sperm donor. There is yet no strict definition of the term. Usage of the ART mainly belongs in the field ofreproductive endocrinology and infertility.

Bio-Electric Stimulation Therapy – BEST

It is also known as Micro Current Electrotherapy or MET. It is a specific electro therapy that gives small current into the body. The current is less than one milli ampere. BEST mimics the electrical stimulations of cells by the nerves. This increases the physiology of the cells. BEST has a positive effect on fatigue and chronic pain. BEST boosts energy levels of the cells and restores the homeostasis of the cells by increasing the production of ATP, Transmembrane transport, stimulation of fibroblasts etc.

BLAST- Basic Local Alignment Search Tool

The BLAST is used to infer functional and evolutionary relationships between sequences as well as help identify members of gene families. The FASTA programs find regions of local or globalsimilarity between Protein or DNA sequences, either by searching Protein or DNA databases, or by identifying local duplications within a sequence.

CHORDIN

Second organizer protein isolated from the clones of cDNA whose mRNAs were present in dorsalised, but not in ventralized embryo. It .is a polypeptide that dorsalizes the developing embryo by binding ventralizing TGFβ proteins such as Bone morphogenetic proteins. It may also play a role in organogenesis. There are five named isoforms of this protein that are produced by alternative splicing.

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation is a process where cells or whole tissues are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero temperatures, such as (typically) 77 K or −196 °C (the boiling point of liquid nitrogen). At these low temperatures, any biological activity, including the biochemical reactions that would lead to cell death, is effectively stopped. However, when vitrification solutions are not used, the cells being preserved are often damaged due to freezing during the approach to low temperatures or warming to room temperature.

Decidualization

Decasualization succeeds pre decidualization if pregnancy occurs. This is an expansion of it, further developing the uterine glands, the zona compacta and the epithelium of decidual cells lining it. The decidual cells become filled with lipids and glycogen and take the polyhedral shape characteristic for decidual cells.

Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization – FISH

Fluorescencein situhybridization (FISH) is the molecular cytogenetic technique that allows cytogeneticists to analyze chromosome resolution at the DNA or gene level. FISH can be performed on dividing (metaphase) and non-dividing (interphase) cells to identify numerical and structural abnormalities resulting from genetic disorders.

GIFT: Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer

GIFT involves placement of unfertilized eggs from the woman and her partner's sperm in the fallopian tubes of the woman with laparoscopy. GIFT can be used as an effective treatment for infertility of all causes except for women with infertility caused by tubal blockage or significant tubal damage or an anatomic problem with the uterus, such as severe intrauterine adhesions. It also should not be used for any significant male factor infertilitycases.

Insitu Hybridization

In situ hybridization (ISH)is a type ofhybridizationthat uses a labeledcomplementary DNAorRNAstrand (i.e.,probe) to localize a specific DNA or RNA sequence in a portion or section oftissue(in situ), or, if the tissue is small enough (e.g. plant seeds,Drosophilaembryos), in the entire tissue (whole mount ISH). DNA ISH can be used to determine thestructureof chromosomes. Fluorescent DNA ISH(FISH) can, for example, be used in medical diagnostics to assess chromosomal integrity. RNA ISH (hybridization histochemistry) is used to measure and localize mRNAs and other transcripts within tissue sections or whole mounts.

MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX

Location and functions of MHC

A viral infected cell will express small fragments of viral protein on its surface to recognize by cytotoxic T cells. The antigen fragments are presented on the surface of the cell by a specialized group of molecules called MHC proteins. These are encoded in a set of genes called Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). The genes are located in the 5Th chromosome Major histocompatibility complex (MHC): Originally recognized as antigens responsible for graft rejection in incompatible hosts after transplantation. These are molecules that bind with processed antigens and are displayed on the surface of cells. MHC class I molecules are displayed on non-immune cells and MHC class II on antigen-presenting cells.

Nidation

The organic process by which the developing blasocyst attaches to the uterine lining. There are many conditions that must be satisfied in order for a successful implantation to take place. There is only a specific period of time during which implantation is possible; this is the "implantation window". A reason for this window is that if implantation does not occur at a certain time, then it signifies that something is wrong. And when there is a risk that something is wrong, there will most likely be amiscarriage rather than the continued gestation of a malformed fetus.

Nieuwkoop Center

Nieuwkoop Center is the Primary Organizer forming centre seen in the developing egg of some Amphibians. In Xenopus, the NieuwkoopCenter is the dorsal- and vegetal-most region. It gives rise to the Primary Organizer called Spemann-Mangold Organizer which is the region known as thedorsallip of theblastopore (DLB). Spemann and Mangold’s experiments found that the DLB dorsalizes surrounding tissue, thus forming the dorsal-ventral axis. In addition to dorsalizing surrounding tissue, the Primary Organizer fates overlying ectoderm as neural plate tissue; and is determined to be notochord tissue.

NOGGIN

First soluble organizer molecule isolated in 1992 by Smith and Harland. Noggin is a polypeptide that binds to members of the TGF-β super family of proteins. It is a Bone morphogenetic protein inhibitor. Noggin plays a key role in neurulation by inhibiting BMP4, along with other morphogens such as chordin and follistatin and inducing the formation of the neural plate. It plays a crucial role in bone development, by regulating the functions of BMP's. During the morphogenisis of organs such as the lungs, teeth and hair follicles, noggin helps to produce Lef1. Mouse knockout experiments show that noggin plays a role in neural tube fusion and joint formation.

Physical Gene Mapping

In physical mapping, the DNA is cut by arestriction enzyme. Once cut, the DNA fragments are separated byelectrophoresis. The resulting pattern of DNA migration (i.e., itsgenetic fingerprint) is used to identify what stretch of DNA is in theclone. By analyzing the fingerprints,Contigsare assembled by automated or manual means into overlapping DNA stretches. Now a good choice of clones can be made to efficiently sequence the clones to determine the DNA sequence of the organism under study.