Background Product Report - Transport

GPP Training Toolkit Background product report

TRANSPORT

1st DRAFT

Background product report – Transport

1.Scope

2.Key environmental impacts......

3.Relevant European environmental legislation

4.Ecolabels and other criteria sources

5.Verification issues

6.Life-cycle costing considerations

7.Recommended criteria options- passengers vehicles

8.Recommended criteria options- public transport vehicles and services..

9.Recommended criteria options- waste collection trucks and services

10.Information sources

1.Scope

Transport is one of the three areas of consumption with the greatest environmental impact according to the European study Environmental Impact of Products (EIPRO),[1] and as such is clearly an important field for green public procurement (GPP).

The great diversity of vehicle types acquired by public administrations varies between vehicles for ordinary use (like for example official vehicles, vehicles of inspection bodies, delivery vans or equipment for gardening); emergency vehicles (ambulances, fire engines, cars and police vans…); and special vehicles (sweeping trucks, garbage trucks, buses, etc.). Each one of these types of vehicle has a specific function and different requirements; therefore, the recommended purchasing criteria will vary accordingly.

In determining which vehicle types are of highest priority for public procurement it is necessary both to examine where the environmental impacts are highest, but also where the public sector has the highest market share (and thus the highest influence on the market as a whole).

From an environmental point of view, passenger cars account for four fifths of environmental impacts related to transport in Europe,[2] and account for more than 10% of all EU CO2 emissions[3]. Therefore, GPP criteria will be developed for passenger cars (including light-duty vehicles. This product group encompasses vehicles classified as M1 (passenger cars, all sizes) and N1 class I (light commercial vehicles) according to Directive 2001/116/EC (amending Directive 70/156/EEC).

In terms of public procurement, the total annual purchase of vehicles by public authorities has been estimated to be in the order of 110,000 passenger cars, 110,000 light duty vehicles, 35,000 lorries and 17,000 buses for the EU-25. The corresponding shares of public procurement of the whole sales in the EU-25 are slightly below 1% for cars, around 6% for vans and lorries, and around 30% for buses.[4]

Given the importance of the public sector market share, GPP criteria will therefore also be developed for buses. This product group encompasses vehicles classified as M2 and M3 vehicles (buses of various sizes) according to Directive 2001/116/EC (amending Directive 70/156/EEC). As bus services are often contracted out to private companies, criteria for public transport services will also be proposed.

Additionally, many specialist vehicles such as garbage trucks are produced almost exclusively for the public sector. Due to different duty cycles (very slow, frequent stops, high auxiliary load for the garbage compactor, everyday service, etc.) they must be dealt with differently from other heavy-duty vehicles. Criteria will also be developed for this group.

To summarise, criteria will be developed for the following three product groups:

• Passenger cars directly purchased or contracted under leasing/renting systems,
• Public transport vehicles and services,
• Waste collection trucks and services.

The criteria and contracting procedures defined in this document may also be used as guidance to define specifications for the purchase of vehicle types and service contracts not explicitly covered here. This will need to be determined on a case-by-case basis by the contracting authority.

2.Key environmental impacts and influencing factors

According to a number of European studies on transport the main environmental impacts from vehicles can be related to the emission of: greenhouse gases, other air pollutants, noise, and, to a lesser degree, pollution related to other chemical substances used for tyres and lubricant oils.

There are several aspects, described in the following sections, that can influence those impacts when purchasing and maintaining vehicles:

• Vehicle technology and characteristics, including the type of fuel consumed,
• Tyres and lubricant oils used,
• Mobile air conditioning,
• Driving style.

2.1.Vehicle technology, characteristics and fuels

These days there are a great variety of vehicle technologies and fuels on the market. These can be classified according to the vehicle technologies and. The most commercialised types are:

Vehicle technologies

•Conventional combustion vehicles - these can work with petrol, diesel, biofuels and gaseous fuels either using dedicated engines or bi-fuel engines[5]. Vehicles capable of working with 85% ethanol are known as “Flexi-fuel vehicles”.

•Hybrid vehicles - where a conventional engine is used to generate electricity on-board the vehicle, which is then used to power the vehicle at low speed.

•Electric battery vehicles - electricity is consumed to charge the battery that afterwards is used to power the vehicle.

•Fuel Cell vehicles - which are fuelled with hydrogen.

Vehicle fuels

•Conventional petrol and diesel

•Biofuels - fuels produced from plants and waste for different sources (biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas)

•Gaseous fuels - fuels usually produced from fossil-fuel sources (compressed natural gas [CNG] and liquefied petroleum gas [LPG])

•Electricity - generated using fossil fuels, nuclear power or renewable sources

•Hydrogen - secondary form of energy which can be derived from renewable and non-renewable sources

In relation to fuels, there is an ongoing debate about their relative environmental impacts regarding CO2 and other exhaust gas emissions as well as their production and processing impacts. In order to bring some clarity to this issue, the European Commission conducted a joint evaluation of the Well-to-Wheels energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for a wide range of potential future fuels and power-trains options[6] in 2003 (and updated in 2006).

Within the EU currently different Member States are promoting different technologies and fuelling infrastructures. As such there is little consensus on the most environmentally friendly technology or fuel type.

Conclusion: as this is not a straightforward issue and there are substantial differences at the EU level, the criteria will not favour one type of technology or fuel but define crosscutting, performance-based specifications that can be used for most vehicle types. More information about the different options available on the market for biodiesel, bioethanol and CNG can be found on the PROCURA project website ( or by visiting the Biofuel Cities web platform (

Vehicle usage generates about 26% of all CO2 emissions (the main greenhouse gas) in the EU[7], with passenger cars being responsible for more than half of these emissions. Therefore, to fulfil the EU obligations under the Kyoto protocol and tackle climate change, CO2 emissions from vehicles need to be reduced.

To this end the European Union is actively working with all stakeholders. Thus, as proposed in the Community Strategy to reduce CO2 emissions from passenger cars and light-commercial vehicles[8], the manufacturers’ associations ACEA (European Automobile Manufacturers Association), JAMA (Japanese Automobile Manufacturers Association) and KAMA (Korean Automobile Manufacturers Association) have signed voluntary agreements to progressively reduce, by means of technical options, CO2 emissions for new passenger cars to a target of 140 g CO2/km by 2008/2009 and of 130 g CO2/km by 2012[9].

Even though there have been significant improvements in vehicle technology (in particular in fuel efficiency, which also means lower CO2 emissions) this has not been enough to neutralise the effect of increased traffic and car size, and as such, total emissions are still rising.

Conclusion: public authorities should aim to purchase passenger cars with low CO2 emission levels. For other vehicles, such as buses and trucks (heavy-duty vehicles [HDV]) such a commitment is not in place and information of CO2 emissions is not readily available.

In relation to other exhaust gases emissions, vehicles (except electric ones) not only emit CO2 in the fuel combustion process but also generate other substances, mainly carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) which can cause impacts on human health and the environment.

The EU has been working to control and reduce such emissions since 1992 when the EURO standards were introduced. These standards set limits on the permitted emissions of any new vehicle in the EU according to a certain test cycle, and these limits are becoming progressively stricter over time. These standards are one of the central tools for improving air quality in the EU[10].

However, in many places ambient air quality still does not meet the legal requirements set in the thematic strategy and related Directives[11]. The emissions of these substances of new vehicles on the market also still varies significantly, so there is scope for public authorities to purchase vehicles which perform much better than those meeting just the minimum standards.

Furthermore, vehicle emissions in real driving conditions vary considerably from those fixed with the EURO standard because the testing cycle doesnot include real driving conditions. At the European level, a new cycle has been developed with real driving conditions across Europe, the Artemis driving cycle, which shows more accurate pollutant emissions. However, this hasn’t yet been approved as the standard test cycle.

Conclusion: public authorities should aim to go beyond existing minimum standards and demand stricter EURO standards. Another option would be to specify pollutant emissions according to the Artemis driving test cycle or other test cycle developed for the specific region or city (such those developed for Milan, Paris, etc.).

As for noise emissions, in Europe’s congested cities traffic noise is a serious problem. Noise emission sources range from: propulsion noise (engine, power train, exhaust and intake systems), tyre/road contact noise and aerodynamic noise.

The engine noise is the dominant source at lower speeds (under 30km/h for passenger cars / under 50km/h for lorries), tyre noise dominates above that, and aerodynamic noise becomes louder as a function of the vehicle speed[12].

Noise emission standards (maximum permissible sound levels for the exhaust systemof motor vehicles) were first described in Directive 70/157/EEC[13] and the latest Directive (92/97/EEC[14]) currently sets noise emission limits of 74dB (A) for passenger cars and 80dB (A) for buses and trucks[15].

Conclusion: In order to reduce noise, lower exhaust system emissions levels should be promoted through procurement, together with a focus on tyres where appropriate.

Finally, in relation to size and power, according to data from the ACEA (European Automobile Manufacturers' Association), passenger cars have increased in mass (+15%) and even more in power (+28%) between 1995 and 2004[16]. The increased use of heavier, more powerful cars and trucks together with other factors have offset the improvements in fuel economy of improved engine technology.

Conclusion: the general guideline when procuring or contracting passenger cars should be to define very clearly the use requirements of the vehicles and to choose the smallest, lightest and least powerful vehicle that meets these needs. Furthermore, limiting the power will also help reduce speed and thus also the risk of accidents.

As size and power parameters will have to be determined in each case depending on the specific needs of use, no general criteria can be provided.

Buses and waste collection trucks do not face such a tendency as their selection is more based in the real performance requirements than passenger vehicles

2.2.Vehicle tyres

Tyres can influence two of the main environmental impacts for road transport: greenhouse gas emissions (by increasing fuel consumption) and noise levels.

Tyres influence fuel consumption due to differing rolling resistance. In order to maximise fuel consumption, two measures can be applied: the use of low rolling resistance tyres (LRRT) and the installation of tyre pressure monitoring systems (TPMS). LRRT and TPMS have an important CO2 reduction potential estimated at 3% and 2.5% respectively[17].

When using TPMS the vehicle owner, user or vehicle fleet manager must ensure tyre pressure is adjusted regularly according to the indications of the TPMS. Currently few vehicles are fitted with TPMS, however in its Energy Efficiency Action Plan the EC has defined the compulsory fitting of TPMS on new vehicles as a possible measure to consider[18].

Regarding LRRT there are two main concerns Firstly vehicle manufacturers may use LRRT for the test-cycle vehicles but use different ones for the vehicles actually sold. Secondly there is no standardised method to measure tyres' rolling resistance.

Conclusion: Purchasing authorities should promote TPMS in new vehicles and ensure that LRRT are used for vehicles purchased or leased. Until a harmonised standard is developed the existing models used by some ecolabels (such the Nordic Swan and the Blue Angel, the ISO 8767) should be used for all types of tyres.

In relation to noise levels, tyre rolling noise emissions have increased over time due to the increased use of wider tyres. As the tyre/road contact begins to dominate the noise emission at quite low speeds, as mentioned above, the EU regulates tyre/road noise separately in Directive 2001/43/EC[19] where a test procedure and noise limit values for tyre rolling noise have been set[20].

Commercial tyres differ in their rolling noise even if they are of the same size and, according to tests, there is room for improvement[21]. By introducing low-noise tyres on a large scale traffic noise can be reduced by half on average[22]. On highways and country roads this reduction may be even higher. In addition, low noise tyres also have a lower rolling resistance, which, as mentioned above, can help to reduce fuel consumption.

Conclusion: The purchase of lower noise emission tyres should be encouraged. This is difficult to achieve for the purchase of new cars, however their use can be ensured when tyres are replaced during routine maintenance, either by a leasing company or by in-house staff.

In addition to these two environmental effects, tyres can also release toxic substances hazardous to health and the environment such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Additionally, studded tyres contribute to increasing the volume of particles (PM10) because studs break up the road itself[23].

PAHs have been classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic and toxic to reproduction. In addition, due to the presence of these PAHs, several extender oils have been classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic and toxic to reproduction. In order to contribute to the reduction of total annual emissions of PAHs[24], it appears necessary to restrict the placing on the market and the use of PAH rich extender oils and blends used as extender oils for the production of tyres.

In 2005 a Directive to limit the use of PAH in extended oils and tyres was approved, which will apply to economic operators from 1 January 2010[25]. At present, there is no harmonised test method to determine PAH content in tyres. However the Directive also defines compliance with the criteria if other test results for total polycyclic aromatics (PCAs) are under certain limits.

Conclusion: as green procurement intends to improve the environmental performance of products beyond legal requirements, the limitation of PCAs will be promoted through compliance with other test methods (as defined in the Nordic Swan ecolabel for tyres) until harmonised test methods are developed.

It is difficult to ensure that new cars are fitted with such tyres, however their use can be ensured when tyres are replaced during routine maintenance, either by a leasing company or by in-house staff.

Additionally, in leasing contracts the correct collection and management of used tyres through an authorised waste collector during routine maintenancemust be guaranteed.

2.3.Motor lubricants

Automobile lubricants represent the biggest market for lubricants. The environmental burden of lubricants is considerable due to the nature of the substances that form them (mostly petroleum derived compounds and additives characterised by their toxicity and low biodegradability). Environmentally friendly automotive lubricants present a huge market opportunity, but tough performance requirements and the low price of petroleum alternatives make this a difficult market to enter. Furthermore, as automotive lubricants are used in closed systems, they are not perceived as high-risk lubricants. The environmental concerns relate more to their impact on the fuel consumption and issues related to the proper collection and recycling of used oil.

Low viscosity lubricants (LVL) have a CO2 reduction potential estimated at 2.5%[26]. Motor oils are categorised according to their viscosity at cold start and at high motor temperature by means of the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) system[27]. Oils with SAE viscosity grades 0W30 and 5W30 guarantee the best lubrication function due to their viscosity properties. For this reason, they are described as high lubricity oils. Conventional motor oils (15W40, 10W40) cannot achieve this level of viscosity. LVL are somewhat more expensive but with the reduction of fuel consumption the investment is also financially rewarding after a period of time[28].

Another option could be the procurement of regenerated oils, lubricants that are made partly with used lubricant oils that have been selectively collected, purified and mixed with newly produced oils.

Conclusion: Focus should be given to the procurement of low viscosity lubricants and/or regenerated lubricants.

The correct collection and management of used lubricants through an authorised waste collector during routine maintenance must be also guaranteed.

And with tyres, it is difficult to ensure that new cars are equipped with such lubricants, however their use be ensured during routine maintenance, either by a leasing company or by in-house staff