Geography

AUSTRALIA IN ITS REGIONAL AND GLOBAL CONTEXTS

  • Australia and New Zealand Maritime delimitation treaty
  • Australia and New Zealand involved
  • Used to determine Australia and New Zealand’s respective boundaries, as well as economic zone boundaries and continental boundaries.
  • The United Nations convention of the law of the Sea (UNCLOS) used to determine the solution to the dispute
  • Treaty on Certain Maritime Arrangements in the Timor Sea (CMATS treaty)
  • The Treaty was established to renegotiate the maritime boarders previously established to all East Timor a share of natural resources.
  • East Timor insisted on the new treaty as they felt the boarder was divided fairly.
  • Australia’s location in relation to it’s near neighbours and their traditional boundaries.
  • Island continent
  • Covers 7, 686, 848Km2
  • 6th largest country
  • Neighbour: Papua New Guinea, East Timor, Singapore, Hawaii, Asia
  • British Heritage, European settlement 1788.
  • Pre 1970’s- European immigrants
  • Post 1970’s- Asia- Pacific
  • Asia Pacific Trade dominated economy, and tourism to a lesser extent
  • Australia’s regional and Global links
  • AID
  • Bilateral- One country directly to another country
  • Multilateral- Many countries donate to a single country
  • Primarily to Asia pacific region- closest region- PNG greatest recipient
  • Purposes- Governance, health, education, agriculture, infrastructure
  • TOURISM- Direct contribution to the economy. NZ, Japan, UK, USA provide greatest numbers of tourists
  • COMMUNICATIONS
  • SPORT
  • CULTURE- cultural links- Australia- China friendship society, Australian Japan foundation, Australian Indian foundation
  • MIGRATION- ¼ of all Australians are born overseas. 3rd most multicultural country.
  • TRADE- minor role (1% in world trade) – trade links promote economic development.
  • DEFENCE- ANZUS- most important -$28 billion over next decade- Australia’s national security and economic interest are linked strongly to the security and stability of the Asia- Pacific region.
  • MIGRATION
  • Movement of people from one area to another
  • Rural- urban drift
  • Interstate
  • International
  • Immigrant- comes to live permanently in a country
  • Emigrant- leaves a country either permanently or long term
  • People may migrate to Australia as
    -Business person
    -Skilled person
    -Spouse, partner, fiancée
    -Family
    -Refugee, humanitarian
  • Reasons people Emigrate
    -Economic
    -Social
    -Political
    -Environmental

  • PUSH
/
  • PULL

  • Globalisation
/
  • Globalisation

  • Unemployment
/
  • Employment

  • Famine
/
  • Democratic Government

  • War
/
  • Labour shortage

  • Natural Disaster
/
  • Education

  • Drought
/
  • Better Services

  • Political, Racial, Religious, Persecutional
/
  • Favourable Immigration

  • Unstable or Undemocratic Government
/
  • Environmental Amenities

  • Immigration Act 1901
    -Meant migration was primarily from Europe, particularly Great Britain and Ireland
    -Post 1970’s- White Australia policy was abandoned
    -Increase in diversity
    -Migrants concentrated on East Coast Australia, especially Victoria and New South Wales
    -influenced by economic position, employment, common ethnic background

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

  • Developing policies, set critia
  • Migration Act 1958 covers policy, sets penalties
  • Implement measures to discourage, prevent people smuggling eg. Coast watch, Navy
  • Deporting Foreign nationals who don’t have document and aren’t refugees
  • Preventing visitors from overstaying visas
  • Services for new arrivals
  • Preventing discrimination against visitors
  • Implements policy of multiculturalism (CNIA)

ROLE OF NON- GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS

  • Defend human rights of asylum seekers and refugees
  • Monitor governments actions
  • Encourage government to provide adequate protection for asylum seekers
  • Speak on behalf of refugee communities
  • Provide legal advice and protection
  • Financial support
  • NGO’S
  • Amnesty International, Austcare, Australian Catholic Migrant and refugee office, Red Cross, National Council Of Churches in Australia

TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS RELEVENT TO THE LINK

  • Refugee convention Act 1951-
    -Administered by UNHCR
    -Rights of refugees
    -Obligations of countries
  • Torres Strait Treaty
    -Australia and PNG
    -Allows traditional people from both countries to go without visas
  • Refugee Treaty 1954
    -Makes laws to cover obligations

MIGRATION

ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
ECONOMIC
-creates jobs by increasing demand
-skilled migrants contribute to GDP
-pays taxes
-allows business expansion
-increases out put of goods and services / -‘Drain’ on economy
-takes Australian jobs
CULTURAL
-creates diversity eg. In sport, fashion, etc
-range of cultural backgrounds
-adds to knowledge, beliefs, morals, laws and customs
-encourages tolerance / -threat to Australia’s unique identity and way of life
-can contribute to racial tensions
DEMOGRAPIC
-increases population growth as natural increase declines
-can provide workforce in rural areas / -concentration in enclaves
-inhibits assimilation
-creates enclaves of disadvantage
GEOPOLITICAL
-has strengthened strategic alliances with other countries
-trade has increased as a result of foreign alliances / -current policies for processing and protection of asylum seekers (removed from protection zone) has attracted critism from UN and international communities
-people smugglers from Indonesia have caused problems fro relations with Indonesia.
-Australia’s wars in Afghanistan, Iraq and East Timor has led to refugee movement into the country

SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EQUALITY

  • Government refused to allow a registered vessel enter Australian waters with over 400 asylum seekers that had been saved from drowning
  • Encouraging poor nations to take refugees, with promises of grants
  • Refusal to allow asylum seekers access our legal system
  • Unauthorised arrivals are treated differently- don’t have the right to apply for permanent visas, families cannot join them
  • Detention centres

POPULATION- CURRENT AND FUTURE TRENDS

  • population tripled since 1911
  • ageing population- declining fertility rates, increased life expectancy
  • topped 20 million, 2003
  • migrants- UK largest group, NZ 2nd largest
  • concentrated coastal areas
  • exurbanisation- move from cities to coastal or rural areas
  • fast growing cities- urbanisation- ecological problems
  • interstate migration- southern states to QLD

CURRENT TRENDS CHARCTERISTIC OF POPULATION

  • Growing population- impact on resources
  • Ageing population- career over kids, better medical facilities, longer life span - high tax, less workers, less aged pensions
  • Declining fertility rates- contraceptives, cost- aging population
  • Spatial distribution- East coast, SW coast, major cities, sea change, tree change- congestion, pollution, waste management, crime
  • Growing Multicultural Nature of Population- migration, opportunities, family to skill, migration attractive- racial tensions, encourage tolerance, improves workforce participation, migrants mainly settle in major cities which places stress on the environment.
  • Inter and Intra State Migration- south to north, east to west, climate, coastal living, retirement, rural to urban- decline in country areas, city more crowded, population decline to south Australia and Tasmania.

GOVERNAMNT POLICIES TO MANAGE POULATION GROWTH

  • Immigration
  • $3000 baby bonus
  • compulsory tax concessions for stay at home mothers
  • compulsory employer superannuation contributions
  • tax concessions to people who make voluntary superannuation contributions
  • family allowance
  • Promoting to continuing of jobs after retirement.

ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainable population Australia (SPA) 1988

Non-government organisation

Aims include;
-ecological sustainable population depends on renewable source base
-increase public awareness
-promote polices which reduce population- low migration
-promote urban and rural lifestyles

Business Council of Australia (BCA) 1983

Represents Australian business

Used to give Australian businesses leadership to contribute directly to public policy debates- population

They state that by 2028- dependency ratio of retiree will have doubled

Lobby a policy that ensures ‘growing dynamic and well skilled population rather than one that is shrinking and aging.’

Implications of population trends: ecological sustainability

  • Waste- landfill sites
  • Air pollution- smog in Sydney
  • Over development of coastal areas- The Gold Coast
  • Land clearing- Central Queensland
  • Drought- Water restrictions throughout NSW
  • River degration- The Hawksbury- Neopean River, Sydney
  • Salinity- The Murray-DarlingBasin
  • Feral Animals- Cane Toads

Population Movement and Urban Planning

  • Urban Sprawl- Expansion of a city around its fringe often requiring the clearing of native bushland.
  • Urban Consolidation- Promotes the increase in medium and high density housing utilising existing infrastructure
  • Urban renewal- The development of old urban areas. This sometimes involves re-use of heritage buildings eg the rocks
  • Gentrification- A process whereby intercity dilapidated buildings or poor neighbourhoods are taken over and renovated by the movement of wealthy people into the areas resulting in increases in property values.

Problems of living in cities- as population rises, the need for money does as well, so often many are left behind and;

  • land clearing
  • poverty
  • and drugs, etc

Can occur.

THE CHALLENGE OF HUMAN RIGHTS

UN Declaration of Human Right 1948

  • freedom of speech
  • religion
  • adequate food and water

Evolved human rights:

  • economic, social, cultural rights
  • elimination of racial discrimination
  • civil and political rights
  • discrimination against women
  • rights of the child
  • Australia’s human rights are generally good. Australia argued in favour of Human Rights in 1945.
  • Except:
  • Treatment of refugees
  • Mandatory detention of Asylum seekers
  • Pacific solution of Asylum seekers
  • Homeless youth
  • Gender based discrimination
  • Racial Discrimination
  • Domestic Violence
  • Limited access to Judicial System- Poverty

Role of Government

  • Human rights protected in constitution, legislation and common law
  • Establishment of HREOC
  • Ratification of human rights instruments
  • Acts passed to fulfil our obligations
  • Aboriginal and Torres strait islander social Justice commissioner

Role of NGO’s

  • inform people of human rights abuses
  • assist governments about making improvements
  • Active citizenship that all Australians can practice to become more informed about these abuses.
  • Amnesty International
  • Human Rights Watch
  • Medecins Sans Frontierers
  • Red Cross

RECONCILIATION

  • Forging new relationships with indigenous peoples
  • Role of Council: recognize issues that need to be addressed for reconciliation to continue
  • Issues include:
  • Recognising importance of land and sea to indigenous peoples
  • Value culture
  • Improve relationships
  • Sharing stories
  • Addressing disadvantages
  • Custody issues
  • Self- determination
  • Establishing a document for reconciliation

Aboriginal lands rights are important because

  • religion
  • law and customs
  • some aboriginals have claimed back small areas of land

Disadvantages

  • health
  • education
  • employment

Self determination- right of all people to determine political, economic, social and cultural status.

1992- Mabo decision- over turned terra Nullius

1995- Bringing them home report

1996- Howard Governments ‘practical reconciliation’

1997-Sea of hands- initiative of Australians for Native tittle.

1998- ‘Sorry day’ 1st anniversary of bringing them home report

2000- walk for reconciliation

Issues in the Australian Environment

Air Quality

  • Air pollution
  • Acid Rain or snow
  • Smog
  • Enhanced Greenhouse effects

Spatial dimension: air quality differs between places, at different times and weather conditions. Increasing population and demand for more goods puts greater pressure on Air quality.

Ecological dimension: human interactions include transport, industrial activity, and smoking, dust storms from over grazing on marginal land, bush fires and burning fossil fuels.

Geographical Processes- Physical impacts

  • Temperature inversions- cold air is trapped under warmer air
  • High pressure systems (anticyclones): when weather is dominated by high pressure systems and cloudless weather, with little or no wind, this causes a build up of pollution.
  • Sea breezes: Start in morning as sun warms up air and subside in late afternoon as air cools down
  • Katabatic air: colder denser air flows down slopes and contribute to temperature inversion.
  • Sunshine: Generation of smog and ozone pollution rely on strong sunshine and high temperatures.
  • Volcanic eruptions
  • Bushfire- Both physical and human

Geographical Processes- Human impacts

  • Urbanisation
  • Industrialisation
  • Economic growth
  • Population Growth
  • Poor Agricultural techniques

Perceptions of different groups (stakeholders) about Air Quality

  • local citizens
  • employees
  • employers
  • business
  • environmental groups
  • governments

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is an amendment to the international treaty on climate change, assigning mandatory targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to signatory nations.

Australia and the US refuse to sign it on the basis of economic reasons.

Smaller countries are concerned about global warming, as there islands will cease to exist if it continues.

INDIVIDUAL, GROUP AND GOVERNMENT RESPONSES

Individuals and groups

  • people take measures to reduce pollution and use energy more efficiently
  • community group raise public awareness: smogbusters and IRATE

Local Government

  • prevent backyard burning, toxic wastes- laws
  • construct bike paths
  • council are members of the successful cities for climate protection program

State Government

  • Clean Air Act 1974
  • NSW- Action for Air plan
  • Energy smart business program 1997
  • Banning smoking in public areas
  • Motor way- can also have negative impacts- M5 tunnel

Federal Government

  • National Environment Protection Measure
  • Legislation requiring the use of unleaded petrol
  • Catalytic converters in motor vehicles
  • Cities for climate protection program
  • Supported development of Air quality forecasting system- CSIRO, BOM
  • CSIRO also works with industry

Ecological Sustainability- meeting the needs of the current generation, without impacting on the needs of future generations.

  • use cars less/ smaller cars
  • less dependence on fossil fuels
  • treaties and conventions
  • legislation- restricting smoking
  • clean air act
  • organisations to implement programs eg CSIRO

SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EQUALITY ISSUES

  • M5 East Freeway emission stacks- environmental concerns- road benefits
  • Small island nations in the PacificOcean- the greenhouse targets set by Kyoto cannot be met, as The US and Australia refuse to meet the agreement, this could have terrible out come to smaller countries
  • Right to breathe Clean Air Vs right to get goods and services at affordable prices
  • Right to breathe clean air Vs right to make money and have jobs
  • Personal freedoms to smoke vs. rights of non- smokers to not be affected by passive smoking

Introduction to the Wollongong region

  • Physical environment:
  • Beautiful
  • Narrow coastal plain with Pacific Ocean, white sand beaches, lagoons and wetlands
  • Prominent rocky escarpment
  • Rainforest
  • Coastal plain broadens
  • Deep blue waters
  • Human Environment
  • Urbanised and industrialised
  • Houses and industry
  • Green grass- covered hills used for livestock farming
  • Tall chimney stacks
  • Smoke plumes
  • Slag piles
  • Factory sheds
  • Roadways
  • Rail lines
  • Steelworks
  • Copper smelter
  • Quarries
  • Coke works
  • Engineering works
  • Black coal
  • Conveyor belts
  • Waiting/ large ships
  • Port

Geographical Processes- Physical

  • The escarpment, sea breezes and drainage flows all impact upon the air quality in Wollongong.
  • Temperature becomes highly concentrated, as the Port Kembla Copper Smelter is Situated in the escarpment, making it prone to temperature inversions
  • Predominantly on shore wind forces pollution inland

Geographical processes- Human

  • industrialisation
  • economic growth
  • urbanisation

History of Copper Smelter

  • 1908- Copper smelter built
  • Expansion of residential areas
  • Long history of pollution
  • 1961- Clean Air Act
  • 200m high Chimney built- disperses emissions over a larger area
  • 1990- plant upgraded
  • 1991- fires and explosions- malfunction
  • paid out $7 million due to property damage
  • 1995- closed due to inability to comply with EPA
  • 1996- NSW gov. gives permission to upgrade and reopen
  • 1997- local residence fight this decision in the land and environment court
  • 28 May 1997- government introduces legislation
  • Port Kembla (special Provisions) Act into Parliament to stop the case
  • 1999- Freedom of information case brought forward by Helen Hamilton
  • Public was given access to information, but case was lost
  • 2000- smelter reopens with environmental restrictions
  • community allowed to monitor the pollution
  • 2002- Government moves to take the smelter to court over breaches of environment.

Perceptions of different groups

Government/ Politicians

  • best interests for the state
  • business opportunity
  • politicians have extensive experience business and community issues so they can make the right choice
  • jobs
  • income for the Illawarra region
  • do not have to import copper from other sates or overseas
  • to be voted in at next election

Community views

  • smelter is causing sickness
  • monitoring wont help the community, action has to be made
  • cant afford, or have the qualifications to hight the smelter
  • An environment they and their children could want

Company views

  • Produces work
  • Are reducing pollution
  • Improving community consultation
  • Looking after global market and share holders
  • They have money to keep on operating despite legal action
  • To continue to operate
  • To remain profitable

Compromise solution was:

Productions were to be increased by 50 % and the firm could start the pollution- reduction program in 2002, completing it by 2009. The community would be allowed to monitor (measure) the pollution and the EPA would prosecute if the smelter went above the standards set in the operating licence.

Coastal Management

Coastal management issues

  • players
  • residents of coastal communities
  • developers who wish to make profits by building in coastal areas
  • environmentalists who express concern about the over- development of coastal areas
  • The government, which has the responsibility of managing coastal development
  • Issues include
  • Seagrass protection
  • Beach replenishment
  • Tourism development
  • Coastal and marina development
  • Re- vegetation and weed eradication programs
  • Water quality
  • Wildelife management
  • Pollution and waste management
  • Climate change and sea level rise

Over –devopment

Erosion

Storm water pollution

Declining water quality

Over fishing

Loss of mangroves/ wetlands/ seagrass

Problems arise when human action conflicts with the capability of the natural environment.

Federal, state and local governments are all responsible for the environment.

Coastal organisations